The indeterminate character of the broad theoretical formulations offered to account for transfer of training and the often unsuccessful ways in which they were applied to the practical problems of classroom teaching led some psychologists to retreat to the laboratory in the hope of identifying more clear-cut, fundamental processes in transfer of training. As a result, a number of different transfer-of-training phenomena were discovered, several of which may be reviewed as follows.
Stimulus and response similarity
The method of paired-associate learning, in which a person is asked to learn to associate one syllable or word with another (e.g., complete–hot, safe–green, wild–soft), encouraged the investigation of the influence of stimulus and response similarity on transfer of learning. Typically these pairs of verbal items are presented to the laboratory subject so that the first, or stimulus, member (e.g., complete) is exposed alone, followed after a short interval by the second, or response, member (e.g., hot). The subject’s task is to respond to the stimulus term before the response term appears, as when an English-speaking student in learning French is supposed to respond to le livre with the book.
When two successive lists of paired associates are learned in which the stimulus elements are the same but the response terms are changed (e.g., complete–hot in the first list and complete–new in the second), negative transfer typically results. Apparently, in learning the second list the subject tends to respond to the stimulus term (e.g., complete) with the previously learned correct response term (e.g., hot), the result being interference with new learning to produce negative transfer. If he were learning the second list without having learned the first, the subject would not be so handicapped.
Another question concerns the sort of transfer that results when response terms are different and stimulus elements are similar but not identical; for example, entire is similar to complete. After one has learned complete–hot, the experimental evidence is that his ability to learn entire–new becomes definitely more difficult. Both entire and complete seem to have a tendency to evoke the response hot and to be incompatible with subsequently learning the association of entire with new. The principle that appears to operate in such situations is that the greater the similarity in stimulus elements, the greater the degree of negative transfer.
The influence of response (rather than stimulus) similarity on transfer of training is more complex; in paired-associate learning, the subject needs to learn the response term of each pair (response learning) and then to remember that it is linked with its appropriate stimulus partner (associative learning). When response terms are relatively difficult to learn (as in the case of unfamiliar or foreign words), the subject tends to profit considerably from learning the first list. But when response terms already have been learned (or are easy to learn), little if any positive transfer is likely to occur. The degree of transfer between lists that contain similar response terms depends both on how similar they are and on their level of difficulty; increasing the similarity between response terms is most likely to increase positive transfer when the response terms are relatively difficult to learn.
Although attempts have been made to formulate an all-embracing theory that would account for the effects of similarity among paired associates on transfer of training, a major obstacle that has prevented fully satisfying results is that the degree of positive or negative transfer is typically a product of many interacting influences beyond those of stimulus and response similarity. For example, the amount of training that the subject receives also has significant effects on transfer. When initial training is given on a simulated task (e.g., learning to operate a set of dummy controls in preparation for a second task of acquiring a complicated skill, such as flying an airplane), negative transfer effects frequently appear during the initial stages of learning the second task and then give way with further training to generally positive transfer effects.
Another stumbling block in developing theoretical explanations has to do with the meaning of the central concept of similarity. In such experiments as those in which the salivary reflex is conditioned to different auditory stimuli, similarity is measured in terms of physical stimulus properties (e.g., pitch or loudness); in other studies, as in paired-associate learning, similarity typically is expressed in terms of verbal meaning. In neither case has a universally adopted method yet been devised to measure similarity in a reliable and precise way; perhaps none can be, simply since there are so many different aspects of physical and linguistic or semantic similarity. Despite these difficulties, efforts to analyze transfer experimentally in terms of the properties of stimulus and response events have been productive in identifying conditions that can be varied to alter the direction and the degree of transfer of training.
Retroactive and proactive inhibition
Closely related to stimulus and response similarity are phenomena called retroactive inhibition and proactive inhibition; these demonstrate how forgetting seems to result from interfering activities.
In a study of retroactive inhibition, both the experimental and control groups of people learn task A (for example, a list of adjectives) and are tested for their ability to recall A after a specified time interval. The groups differ in what they are asked to do during the interval; the experimental group learns a similar task B (say, another list of words), while the control group is assigned some unrelated activity (for example, naming a series of coloured chips) designed to prevent them from rehearsing task A. The results of numerous studies of retroactive inhibition show that the experimental subjects typically are poorest in recalling information from task A. The interpolated activity, particularly a comparable one such as memorizing a second list of adjectives, apparently interferes with one’s ability to recall words from the first list. Habit competition, or what is sometimes called interference, between the items of the original and the interpolated word lists at the time of recall is considered to be one of the major sources of the negative transfer exhibited in retroactive inhibition.
Experimental designs for demonstrating proactive inhibition differ from those used for showing retroactive inhibition in that the experimental group learns task B before, instead of after, task A. Whereas B was a task that was interpolated between the learning and the recall of task A in the retroactive inhibition study, B is a task that precedes the learning of task A in the proactive inhibition study. To evaluate the effects on the experimental subjects of their having learned B prior to A, the control people are instructed to relax during the time the experimental group is learning B. Typically an experimental subject’s ability to recall from task A is inferior to that of a control person, the degree of inferiority depending in part on how similar the two tasks are; the greater the similarity, the poorer the recall tends to be. Although proactive inhibition, so called to indicate that it acts forward from the first-learned task to the second, produces appreciably less forgetting than does retroactive inhibition, they both support the theory that interference can produce forgetting (see memory: Theories of forgetting).