treaty
treaty, a binding formal agreement, contract, or other written instrument that establishes obligations between two or more subjects of international law (primarily states and international organizations). The rules concerning treaties between states are contained in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), and those between states and international organizations appear in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Between States and International Organizations or Between International Organizations (1986).
The term treaty is used generically to describe a variety of instruments, including conventions, agreements, arrangements, protocols, covenants, charters, and acts. In the strict sense of the term, however, many such instruments are not treaties. The key distinguishing feature of a treaty is that it is binding. For example, whereas the United Nations (UN) Charter (1945) created a binding agreement and is thus a treaty, the Charter of Paris (1990), which established the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (formerly the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe), is not a binding document as such and thus is not officially a treaty. Treaties are expected to be executed in good faith, in keeping with the principle of pacta sunt servanda (Latin: “agreements must be kept”), arguably the oldest principle of international law. Without this principle, which is explicitly mentioned in many agreements, treaties would be neither binding nor enforceable.
A treaty is normally negotiated between plenipotentiaries provided by their respective governments with the “full power” to conclude a treaty within the scope of their instructions. A country’s signature is often sufficient to manifest its intention to be bound by the treaty, especially in the case of bilateral treaties. In multilateral (general) treaties, however, a country’s signature is normally subject to formal ratification by the government unless it has explicitly waived this right. Apart from such an express provision, the instrument does not become formally binding until ratifications have been exchanged. Multilateral treaties bind only those states that are parties to them and go into effect after a specified number of ratifications have been attained. After the time specified for states to sign the treaty has passed, states may become parties to the treaty through a process known as accession.
The use of multilateral treaties has increased dramatically since the early 20th century (e.g., the 1919 Treaty of Versailles and the 1945 UN Charter). Such treaties have proved to be effective in establishing new rules of international law—particularly where there is a need to respond quickly to changing circumstances or where the issue in question is unregulated. An example of the former kind of treaty is the Convention on the Law of the Sea, which was signed in 1982 and came into force 12 years later. This comprehensive treaty, which took more than a decade to negotiate, specifies the status of the seas and the international seabed. Examples of the latter kind of treaty include a range of environmental treaties, such as the Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979) and the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) as well as their succeeding protocols; the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (both of which were adopted in 1992); and the Kyoto Protocol (1997)—the first addition to the UNFCCC—which was superseded by the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015. In addition, human rights protections have been expanded tremendously through a series of international conventions and regional agreements, including the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), and the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights (1969).
Treaties do not need to follow any special form. A treaty often takes the form of a contract, but it may be a joint declaration or an exchange of notes (as in the case of the Rush-Bagot Agreement between the United States and Great Britain in 1817 for mutual disarmament on the Great Lakes). Important treaties, however, generally follow a fixed plan. The preamble provides the names and styles of the contracting parties and is a statement of the treaty’s general objectives. It is usually followed by the articles containing the agreed-upon stipulations. If the treaty is concluded for a definite period, a statement of the period follows; or, if it is in perpetuity, there may be a provision inserted that either party may “denounce” (i.e., give notice to terminate) the treaty. Any reservations, which alter the treaty’s provisions for the concerned state, may then appear; they are followed by an article that provides for the treaty’s ratification and for the time and place for the exchange of ratifications. The treaty usually ends with a clause stating that “in witness whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have affixed their names and seals,” below which are the signatures and indications of the location and the date. “Additional articles” often are appended and signed by the plenipotentiaries, with the declaration that they have the same force and value as if they had been included in the body of the treaty or convention.
International jurists have classified treaties according to a variety of principles. In addition to the distinction between multilateral and bilateral treaties, there is also the distinction between treaties representing a definite transaction (e.g., a cession of territory) and those seeking to establish a general rule of conduct (e.g., the “renunciation of war”). Treaties also have been classified according to their object, as follows: (1) political treaties, including peace treaties, alliances, territorial cessions, and disarmament treaties; (2) commercial treaties, including tariff, consular, fishery, and navigation agreements; (3) constitutional and administrative treaties, such as the conventions establishing and regulating international unions, organizations, and specialized agencies; (4) treaties relating to criminal justice, such as the treaties defining international crimes and providing for extradition; (5) treaties relating to civil justice, such as the conventions for the protection of human rights, for trademarks and copyright, and for the execution of the judgments of foreign courts; and (6) treaties codifying international law, such as the procedures for the peaceful settlement of international disputes, rules for the conduct of war, and definitions of the rights and duties of states. In practice it is often difficult to assign a particular treaty to any one of these classes, and the legal value of such distinctions is minimal.
Treaties may be terminated or suspended through a provision in the treaty (if one exists) or by the consent of the parties. In the case of a material breach—i.e., an impermissible repudiation of the treaty or a violation of a provision essential to the treaty’s object or purpose—the innocent party of a bilateral treaty may invoke that breach as a ground for terminating the treaty or suspending its operation. Multilateral treaties may be terminated or suspended by the unanimous agreement of all their parties. A party specially affected by a breach of a multilateral treaty may suspend the agreement as it applies to relations between itself and the defaulting state. In cases where a breach by one party significantly affects all other parties to the treaty, the other parties may suspend the entire agreement or a part of it.
