Attitudes

The English colonists in America had mixed opinions about dance. There was the complete disapproval of those who saw only its inherent licentiousness, but from others came at least a tacit toleration of the obviously irrepressible urge to dance. The South, more heavily populated by colonists with aristocratic backgrounds, was generally more inclined to dance than the North, where religious fervour had motivated much of the migration from England. But what was allowed and even encouraged in Connecticut was strictly forbidden in Massachusetts. The general consensus was apparently that dancing in itself was not bad, but that no punishment could be severe enough for what was regarded as lascivious dancing. The Quakers, who had settled mainly in Pennsylvania, were very much against dancing, and in 1706 they complained bitterly about a dancing and fencing school being tolerated in Philadelphia. They feared that the school’s teachings would tend to corrupt their children.

External and internal influences

Nonetheless, Playford’s The English Dancing Master was by no means unknown in America. There were also dancing masters and dancing mistresses to instruct in and lead the dances that had been brought from the Old World. There were society balls in the cities along the coast, and on the inland frontiers the settlers of the widely scattered farmsteads often came together for exuberant feasting and social dancing. Here dancing was considered a socializing virtue expressed in this anonymous observation:

I really know among us of no custom which is so useful and tends so much to establish the union and the little society which subsists among us. Poor as we are, if we have not the gorgeous balls, the harmonious concerts, the shrill horn of Europe, yet we delight our hearts as well with the simple negro fiddle.

What the colonists saw of American Indian dancing they found very strange and primitive, and there was virtually no exchange of dancing customs between the groups. The situation differed, however, with regard to the Black slaves, who in the 17th century had brought their own songs and dances from their native lands in Africa.

During religious holidays in New Amsterdam, Blacks danced in the streets to the musical accompaniment of three-stringed fiddles and drums constructed from eel pots and covered with sheep-skins. Dutch families joined in the festivities. When New Amsterdam became New York, however, the English discouraged dancing between whites and Blacks; Blacks went on to develop the characteristic dance style that would so deeply affect social dancing in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Early in the 18th century, rather rough theatrical entertainments, acts of acrobatic skill or pantomimes in which dances played an increasing role, began to spread through the American colonies. These often amateurish showings got a mighty boost when the first professional companies came from Europe, about the middle of the century, to perform plays and harlequinades with incidental dances.

The Romantic movement in dance

The young people, whose preferences led the way in creating new forms, had lived through the revolutionary events of the 1780s and ’90s. They now looked to dance as a way to unleash deeper emotion, to satisfy the needs of body and soul, and to mobilize more vital and dynamic expression than that permitted by the sober and decorous rules of the dancing masters. The overflow of feeling and the striving for horizons broader than those understood by the traditional canons of French Rationalism were among the factors that generated the Romantic movement in the arts of Europe. This new direction was clearly expressed in the waltz, a dance filled with the Dionysian spirit.

Like much of the spirit of the Romantic movement, the waltz was of German origin. It paralleled the Sturm und Drang movement in German literature, which featured the new forms of prose and poetry by Johann von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller. One of the most glowing advocates of the waltz was Goethe, who time and again praised it, nowhere more than in his novel Die Leiden des Jungen Werthers (1774; The Sorrows of Werter, 1779): “Never have I moved so lightly. I was no longer a human being. To hold the most adorable creature in one’s arms and fly around with her like the wind, so that everything around us fades away.” Even the aristocrats who formed the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which sought to restore law and order to Europe following the upheavals brought on by Napoleon, delighted in performing this earliest of all nonaristocratic ballroom dances.

Spread of the waltz

The waltz started as a turning dance of couples. It was especially popular in south Germany and Austria, where it was known under such different names as Dreher, Ländler, and Deutscher. More than any other dance it appeared to represent some of the abstract values of the new era, the ideals of freedom, character, passion, and expressiveness. This may explain somewhat its eruption into the limelight of international popularity. This popularity was scaled in 1787 when it was brought to operatic stage. Vienna became the city of the waltz, for there it surpassed everything in wild fury. It swept over national frontiers, and in 1804 the French were reported to be passionately in love with this light, gliding dance. “A waltz, another waltz” was the common cry from the ballroom floor, for the French could not get enough of the dance.

Some guardians of the public morality disapproved of the “mad whirling” of the waltz and it did not arrive in England until 1812. At the Prussian court in Berlin it was forbidden until 1818, though Queen Luise had danced it while still a princess in 1794. The guardians could do no more than delay its total victory, and it conquered the world without sanction of courts, of dancing masters, or of other powers. After many centuries of leadership, France no longer set the fashions. In 1819 Carl Maria von Weber’s Invitation to the Dance represented the declaration of love of classical music to the waltz. Shortly thereafter began the age of the Viennese waltz kings, most notably expressed by the Strauss family.

Offspring and rivals

The waltz sired a great variety of offspring throughout Europe. Germany developed such variations of the waltz as the schottisch, with turns like those of the waltz. France had its airy balance valse, and the Americans later on had their Boston waltz, a slower, gliding variant. About 1840 a serious rival to the waltz emerged in the polka, a Bohemian dance that took its name from the Czech word půlka, “half step.” It was full of fiery vigour. Another Bohemian folk dance finding favour in the dance halls was the rejdovák or redowa, while Poland’s mazurka and krakowiak enjoyed great popularity. No ball could be concluded without a galop, in which couples galloped through the hall with accelerated polka steps, an exhausting exercise that required considerable reserves of stamina.