Court dances and spectacles

Celebrations and festivities proliferated. The itinerant jugglers of the Middle Ages became highly respected and much sought after as dancing masters. They quickly assumed the function of instructing the nobility not only in the steps but also on posture, bearing, and etiquette. They became responsible for the planning and realization of the spectacular festivities. The social prestige of this newly developing profession grew constantly.

Some of these dancing masters were highly learned men, and their treatises leave no doubt about their scholarly ambitions. Many of them were Jewish, descended from the Klesmorim, a group of medieval Jewish entertainers. The first dancing master known by name was Domenico da Piacenza, who in 1416 published the first European dance manual, De arte saltandi et choreas ducendi (“On the Art of Dancing and Directing Choruses”). His disciple, Antonio Cornazano, a nobleman by birth, became an immensely respected minister, educator of princes, court poet, and dancing master to the Sforza family of Milan, where about 1460 he published his Libro dell’arte del danzare (“Book of the Art of the Dance”). Such books record little about the actual steps and the melodies to which they were performed, but they are eloquent in the description of the balli—works that were invented by the dancing masters themselves. Adapting steps from the various social dances, they used them in a kind of dance pantomime.

In France, numerous forms developed from the branle, a round dance of peasant origin that became fashionable in the courts. One of the most frequently mentioned of all the dances of the 15th century was the morisca, or moresque, a romanticized version of dances from Moorish Spain. These were first mentioned in 1446 by a Bohemian traveller who visited Burgos, Spain. Later, in Portugal, he encountered similar forms. Sometimes religious motifs of the legendary fight between Charlemagne and the Turkic invader Timur entered the morisca, but usually it was performed as a double-file choral dance. It had nothing to do, as was long believed, with the English masked Morris dance.

From such choral dances the ballet emerged. At the court entertainments throughout Savoy and northern Italy, sumptuous spectacles with mythological, symbolical, or allegorical content became increasingly popular. At these early stages, however, pantomime and dance are not easily distinguished. Famous examples of these spectacles are the presentation of the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece at the marriage of Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1430, and the dinner ballet on the same, though widely enlarged, subject staged for the wedding of the Duke of Milan in 1489.

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United States: Dance

Tudor England of the early 16th century had similar pageants, with the participants disguising “after the manner of Italie.” Like the Italian balli, the English masque offered an almost unlimited choice of performing variations, from a simple dance in masks to the most elaborate spectacle interspersed with songs, speeches, and pantomimes. As for the actual dances, Robert Copland’s Maner of Dauncynge of Bace Daunces after the Use of Fraunce, published in 1521 as an appendix to a French grammar, leaves no doubt that the English upper class of that period was thoroughly familiar with continental dance. But whereas the nobility preferred dances of slow, measured, and dignified stature, stylishly performed and modelled upon the standards of the French court, the peasants continued their boisterous dancing, in England as elsewhere, very much as they had for centuries.

In England in the late 16th century, Queen Elizabeth I gave dancing a further boost. She was a skilled practitioner of the galliard and the volta, with its tight embraces by high-leaping couples. She enjoyed watching the English country dances—the chain, ring, and round dances of ancient origin and constantly new invention. These dances apparently provided a continuous infusion of new vitality into court dances. The nobles vied with one another in the execution of the jig, a sprightly and swift dance of “the folk” accompanied by songs. Dancing schools flourished everywhere in London, giving public displays and contributing considerably to the reputation of “the dancing English.” Another extremely important contribution to dance was provided by Spain, which in the late 16th and early 17th centuries enjoyed a cultural renaissance. It was the “golden age” of Cervantes in literature, of Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca in the theatre, of El Greco and Diego Velásquez in painting. With the growth of Spain’s empire in the Americas, dances of Afro-American origin found their way back to Europe. The sarabande and the chaconne were brought from Central America before 1600. Both were considered outspokenly obscene in their suggestions of sexual encounters. They became extremely popular in the harbours of Andalusia, where they were polished and their pantomimic literalness somewhat moderated. From there they crossed the Pyrenees and were integrated into the canon of the French court dance.

Other dances from abroad played major roles in the shaping of Spain’s national dances. The canarie of African origin certainly sired the Aragonese jota, while the sarabande brought forth the seguidilla. The Afro-Cuban chica lived on in the fandango, and the flamenco dances of the Andalusian Gypsies retained their Moorish heritage into the 20th century. It can be presumed that this exchange of dances was not a one-way traffic, that the European conquerors and colonists similarly influenced the dancing habits of the people in other lands.

The birth of ballet

Meanwhile, dance became the subject of serious studies in France. A group of writers calling themselves La Pléiade aimed for a revival of the theatre of the ancient Greeks with its music, song, and dance. In Catherine de Médicis (1519–89), the Florentine wife of Henry II, the Italian dancing masters found an influential sponsor in Paris. She called to Paris the Italian musician and dancing master Baltazarini di Belgioioso, who changed his name to Balthazar de Beaujoyeulx (early 16th century to 1587). There had been previous fetes in both France and Italy that offered masquerades, pantomimes, and dances with allegorical and symbolical subjects, but none of them compared to the splendours of the Ballet comique de la reine that Beaujoyeulx staged in 1581 for Catherine.

This “ballet” told the story of the legendary sorceress Circe and her evil deeds. Spoken texts alternated with dances amid magnificently decorative settings. The performers, recruited from the nobility, moved on the floor more like animated costumes than individual dancers. They came together in strikingly designed groups, and they set up geometrical floor patterns that had highly symbolic meanings. (To audiences of the period, for example, three concentric circles represented Perfect Truth, and two equilateral triangles within a circle stood for Supreme Power.) The ballet, which ended in an act of homage to the royal majesties present, had a distinct political moral. Circe had to render her might to the absolutist power of the king of France as the supreme symbol of a peaceful and harmonious world.

The Ballet comique launched the species known as ballet de cour, in which the monarchs themselves participated. The idealized dances represented the supreme order that France itself, suffering from internal wars, lacked so badly. The steps were those of the social dances of the times, but scholars became aware of how these native materials might be used to propagate the Greek revival. They thoroughly analyzed and systematized the dances, and in 1588 the priest Jehan Tabourot, writing under the pen name Thoinot Arbeau, published his Orchésographie, which he subtitled “a treatise in dialogue form by which everyone can easily learn and practice the honest exercise of the dance.” This was the first book containing reliable descriptions of how, and to what kind of music, the basse danse, pavane, galliard, volta, courante, allemande, gavotte, canarie, bouffon, moresque, and 23 different variations of the branle were performed.