Theatre companies in France in the early 16th century were playing a mixed fare of moralities, miracle plays, farces, and soties. The most important company was an amateur guild called the Confrérie de la Passion, which held a monopoly on acting in Paris. In 1548 it opened its own theatre, the Hôtel de Bourgogne, a long narrow room with the stage filling one end, a pit for standing spectators, and two galleries around the walls. Both auditorium and stage were lit by candles. Soon after the theatre opened, the Confrérie was forbidden by decree to perform religious plays for fear that they could be used to debase Roman Catholicism. The feeble traditions of indigenous secular drama in its repertoire were soon overpowered by the Renaissance influence, and dramatists began looking to Classical antiquity for inspiration. Civil war, however, halted the appearance of any truly great drama until well into the 17th century. The new plays that appeared in Paris—mainly pastorals and tragicomedies—were written by Classical scholars as imitations of the Italian commedia erudita, but the French love of order resulted in the intensification of the dramatic unities of time, place, and action. The first fully professional company, which included women, was that of Valleran-Lecomte; it took over the Hôtel de Bourgogne toward the end of the century, performing its plays on the medieval-style multiple setting stage. The acting in these Neoclassical plays was not given to realism: each actor stood at the front of the stage to declaim his lines and then stepped back to allow the next actor to speak.

National unity came in the early 17th century under Louis XIII and his brilliant adviser, the cardinal de Richelieu, and with unity came the desire (similar to that in Tudor England) to create a strong national culture. Theatre companies were active in the provinces, but Paris, the centre of cultural life, was the goal for which they all aimed. In 1634 the Théâtre du Marais was opened in an indoor tennis court, and in 1641 Richelieu built his own Italian-style theatre (complete with all the latest machinery), which after his death became the Théâtre du Palais-Royal. Richelieu, who took an active interest in theatre, had also tried to purify comedy and tragedy by discouraging what he considered the formless tragicomedy. His efforts, however, were thrown into confusion by the arrival of the first French play of any real worth, Pierre Corneille’s Le Cid (1637), a tragicomedy that ignored the revered unities. Working smoothly within the rules, Corneille’s rival, Jean Racine, took French Neoclassical drama to its greatest heights with his nine tragedies, of which Phèdre (1677) is regarded as the pinnacle.

Both Racine and Corneille were overshadowed by Molière, who is considered the world’s greatest comic dramatist. After 13 years of touring France with his company, the Illustre-Théâtre, Molière was accepted at the court of Louis XIV in 1658 and began to elevate the crude farce to the level of sophisticated social comedy, placing it on a par with tragedy. For several years he shared the Petit-Bourbon theatre with a troupe of commedia dell’arte actors led by Tiberio Fiorillo and was much influenced by their realistic style of playing. Later he moved to the Palais-Royal. Far from imitating foreign plays, Molière created distinctly French characters based on an acute observation of social manners. After Molière’s death, Louis XIV amalgamated the Illustre-Théâtre with two other companies in 1680 to form Europe’s first national theatre, the Comédie-Française, which continues to further the cultural aims of France to the present day.

Spread of national theatres

In the course of the succeeding centuries, national theatres were established in many other European countries but not necessarily for the same reasons. German national theatres fought to shake off the infiltration of French culture and to develop native traditions. It was the aim of the Austrian emperor Joseph II to institute national theatres for all the peoples of his empire so that they might become acquainted with the works of world literature in their own tongue. After establishing a national theatre for the German-speaking population of Austria, Joseph II then supported the Czechs and Slovaks in their efforts toward their own national theatre. Later, one was founded in Budapest for the Hungarians. Gustav II created the Swedish national theatre. Catherine the Great of Russia also set out to introduce her people to the dramatic works of world literature performed in the Russian language.

There was no court theatre in the Netherlands. The performances of plays and the organization of theatre festivals had, since the 15th century, been in the hands of the Rederijkerskamers—societies of amateur enthusiasts similar to the French confréries. The plays—both serious religious pieces and farces—were usually presented outdoors on a raised platform with a curtained facade. The curtain could be closed for scene changes, though the settings themselves were very simple. In 1617 the first Dutch Academy was opened, and one of its priorities was to foster a higher standard of theatre developing at the time under a strong French influence. This eventually led to the construction of the first indoor theatre in Amsterdam, the Schouwburg. It opened with Gysbrecht van Aemstel (1638), a patriotic play in the Classical tradition by the Dutch poet and dramatist Joost van den Vondel. The Schouwburg, which had a semipermanent setting, was remodeled in 1665 along Italian lines, though this did nothing to stem the general decline in Dutch drama.

Ballet and opera-ballet

If there was a lack of great theatre in France before Corneille, it was well compensated for by extravagant court ceremonials in which dance featured prominently. These reached a high level of sophistication in the later 16th century, stimulated by the presence of Italian dancing masters invited to the French court by Catherine de Médicis. A product of this collaboration was the ballet comique, a courtly dance entertainment with words. Another Italian import was changeable-perspective scenery, which was brought to Paris in 1645 by the designer Giacomo Torelli, who completely refurbished the Petit-Bourbon. The staging of court ballets was accordingly adapted to show off the possibilities of the new machinery. Louis XIV often took part in these and earned the title Le Roi Soleil (The Sun King) when he performed as the Sun in Le Ballet de la nuit in 1653. Molière was called upon to provide texts for elaborate court festivities at Versailles involving ballets, plays, fireworks displays, and theatrical banquets.

Louis XIV also organized the teaching and presentation of music and dance by setting up academies. The Académie Royal de Musique (1669) was officially given the exclusive right to present operas, which led to a new genre, the opera-ballet, initiated by the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully, which combined vocal scenes with danced interludes. Following the developments in Italian opera, composers made new demands on singers, who had to study for years in order to be able to meet them successfully. After the mid-17th century, singers exerted considerable influence on the structure of new works because they demanded showpiece arias at certain places in the text. The dramatic technique of Baroque opera followed set rules: arias were to be sung at the front of the stage, facing the audience; the chorus was directed as a static body; and the ornate setting was an elaborate decoration with which to please the eye rather than a functional definition of the acting area. One effect of the academies was to transfer dance activities from the court to the professional stage, and in 1681 the first professional dancers appeared in Le Triomphe de l’amour (The Triumph of Love), choreographed by Charles-Louis Beauchamp to Lully’s music.

Restoration theatre

One of the first gestures of Charles II upon his Restoration in 1660 was to reverse Puritan sobriety by encouraging the kind of entertainment and theatrical activities that he had seen during his years of exile at the French court. Within months of his return to London he granted royal patents to Thomas Killigrew and Sir William Davenant to establish two theatre companies, the King’s Players and the Duke’s Players, respectively. Significantly, they chose to follow the French example and convert two indoor tennis courts as temporary premises rather than take over one of the surviving Elizabethan playhouses. In 1671 Sir Christopher Wren built the Duke’s Theatre, Dorset Garden, for Davenant, and three years later he built the first Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, for Killigrew. These theatres combined Continental innovations with some of the features of the Elizabethan stage. A curved “apron” stage extended beyond the proscenium arch from which entrance doors opened, indicating that most of the action was played toward the front of the stage with the scenery as a mere background. Stock sets of changeable flats were used, and lighting was provided by candles. The greatest impact, however, came from the introduction of actresses to the English stage, the most famous being Nell Gwyn.

The first productions were reworkings of Elizabethan and Jacobean plays, tailored to suit the tastes of the new aristocratic audience composed almost exclusively of courtiers and their attendants. (The majority of the populace, still under the influence of Puritanism, stayed away and probably could not have afforded it anyway.) Values had changed since Shakespeare’s day: the new audience consisted of fashionable young cynics and dilettantes, self-indulgent rakes and wits who prized glittering conversation and were interested only in seeing themselves on stage, however satirical the portrait. Thus came about the bawdy comedy of manners, heavily influenced by Molière but chilled with the dry wit of the London aristocracy. Romance and feeling gave way to intellect in sophisticated plays about cuckoldry, gossip, intrigue, and sexual license, yet tempered with a strong sense of decorum. Although most dramatists of the time did not consider themselves professional writers, Sir George Etherege and William Wycherley developed an elegant style of prose drama that was refined by Sir John Vanbrugh and later William Congreve, whose Way of the World (1700) is the finest example of Restoration comedy. At the beginning of the 18th century there was a softening of cynicism in the comedies of George Farquhar, which brought the period to a close.

As the late 17th century was not a heroic age, tragedy fared less well in England. The poet John Dryden tried unsuccessfully to combine the merits of Racine and Shakespeare in a genre of rhymed heroic tragedy. His blank-verse tragedy All for Love (1677) was more lasting. The weakness of Restoration theatre was that, by concentrating on its aristocratic audience, it excluded most of the populace and was therefore not representative of the various levels of English society. Not surprisingly, the theatre was always struggling to survive, and after the 1670s audiences dwindled. In 1682 the King’s Players and the Duke’s Players merged to form the United Company, and for 13 years London supported only one theatre.