Writers in New York
Several waves of immigration, starting in 1881, brought writers and readers to the United States. The earliest important group has been called the Sweatshop Poets, because they responded to the plight of working people. Their poetry represented a range of socialist and revolutionary ideas. Morris Winchevsky (pseudonym of Ben-Zion Novakhovitsh) was born in Lithuania, moved to Königsberg, Germany [now Kaliningrad, Russia], in 1877, and began to publish poems, stories, and articles in socialist Hebrew newspapers in the late 1870s. He was arrested and expelled from Prussia. In London he joined a communist workers’ union and founded a socialist Yiddish journal (1885–86). Winchevsky immigrated to the United States in 1894 and worked closely with the New York daily Forverts after it was created in 1897. He was the first of the proletarian poets. Another, Morris Rosenfeld, wrote numerous poems describing the harsh conditions experienced by Jewish immigrants, who often worked in the textile industry. One famous poem, “Mayn yingele” (1887; “My Little Boy”), for example, expresses a worker’s estrangement from his family—resulting from endless hours spent in a sweatshop. David Edelstadt was another poet who wrote about the harsh working conditions. He experienced them himself, joined the anarchist movement and edited its weekly Fraye arbeter shtime (original series 1890–92; “Free Workers’ Voice”), and died very young of tuberculosis. Yehoash (pseudonym of Solomon Bloomgarden) wrote Yiddish poetry and a masterful poetic translation of the Hebrew Bible.
American Yiddish poets in New York formed two innovative groups called Di Yunge (“The Young”) and Di Inzikhistn (“The Introspectivists”). Both groups began with the publication of journals—the former with Di yugend (1907–08; “The Youth”) and the latter with In zikh (1920; “Inside the Self” or “Introspection”). Di Yunge was the first movement in Yiddish literature to cultivate “pure poetry,” explicitly rejecting political goals. These poets emphasized a subtler rendering of emotional states in concrete, everyday life. In the poet Zishe Landau’s memorable phrase, they refused to be “the rhyme department of the labour movement.”
A leading figure in Di Yunge was Mani Leib (not known by his surname, which was Brahinsky), who immigrated to the United States in 1905 and became a shoemaker. He was influenced by Russian authors such as Aleksandr Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov; in London en route to America, he met the Hebrew writer Y.H. (Yosef Haim) Brenner. By concentrating on themes of solitude, abandonment, and hopelessness, Leib became a poet of “the lost soul in the big city” (according to Zalman Reyzn), and his influence on modern Yiddish poetry was vast. He also wrote stories in verse for children. One of his best-known poems, “Shtiler, Shtiler” (1914; “Hush, Hush”) is “a credo for a poetry of nuance and understatement, a kind of allegorical reflection on the state of modern Jewish life, and a play upon the messianic expectation that runs through the whole Jewish experience” (according to the American literary and social critic Irving Howe).
Like the other poets of Di Yunge, Zishe Landau also turned from politicized poetry to individual experience. But, while his verses often probed feelings and psychological states in the first person, Landau made use of poetic personae, as in his “Meydlshe gezangen” (“Girlish Songs”) and “Don Quixote.” His aestheticism often referred to paradoxes and contradictions.
Some of the most caustic American Yiddish poems were written by Moyshe Leyb Halpern, who immigrated to the United States in 1908. Halpern was born in Galicia but had lived for many years in Vienna, where he learned painting and was influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche and other German authors. Among his major publications was In Nyu York (1919; “In New York”), from which selections appeared in a bilingual English-Yiddish edition with the same title (1982). His other important works were Di goldene pave (1924; “The Golden Peacock”) and two posthumously published volumes entitled simply Moyshe Leyb Halpern. Although Halpern was associated with Di Yunge, his verse shifts from private feelings to attacks on the public sphere. “In goldenem land” (“In the Golden Land”), for example, is a dialogue between son and mother that gradually reveals the harsh reality behind the dream of an easy life in the United States. “Undzer gortn” (“Our Garden”) similarly presents the gloom of a big city in which a tree has “scarcely seven leaves.”
The Introspectivists continued and intensified the aestheticism of Di Yunge. The most important Introspectivist poets were A. Leyeles (pseudonym of Aaron Glanz), Jacob Glatstein (Yankev Glatshteyn), and Y.L. (Yehuda Leyb) Teller. Influenced by current trends in modernism, they rejected the more traditional metre and rhyme of Di Yunge. In their early manifesto, published in their anthology In zikh (1920), Leyeles, Glatstein, and N.B. Minkoff also renounced the earlier poetry of mood in favour of more thoroughly subjective expression. When they probed the “labyrinth” of the mind and the “kaleidoscope” of experience, they did not limit themselves to themes relating to Jewish life. By the late 1930s, however, in the shadow of rising anti-Semitism, Glatstein and Teller began to write more about Jews and political events.
A. Leyeles was raised in Poland; he moved to London in 1905 and studied at the University of London until 1908. He moved to New York in 1909 and studied literature at Columbia University. In 1918 he published his first book of poems, Labirint (“Labyrinth”), still using familiar rhyme schemes. “New York,” one memorable short poem, opens with a brusque rhythm and montage of images: “Metal. granit. geroysh. gebrazg. gepilder. / oytomobiln. hoykh-ban. tif-ban. kar” (“Metal. Granite. Uproar. Racket. Clatter. / Automobile. Bus. Subway. El” [translated by Benjamin and Barbara Harshav]). Leyeles also brought exotic names and places into his poems, referring to the dao and the Ganges River, for example, and creating an alter ego named Fabius Lind.
Glatstein was one of the finest Yiddish writers of the 20th century. Born in Lublin, Poland, he moved to New York in 1914. With Leyeles and Minkoff he developed the Introspectivist manifesto and practiced it more effectively than any other writer. Like Leyeles, Glatstein had a penchant for exoticism, referring to Nirvana, to a geisha, or to the Arabian Nights. One early poem, “Sezame” (1921; “Sesame”), takes on the voice of Ali Baba’s doomed brother-in-law: “Open, sesame. / It darkens in the cave. / And I, / Weakened under the weight / Of the sacks of gold, silver, and diamonds, / Whisper without strength: / Open, sesame.” Other poems emphasize sound, such as the poem “Turtle Doves” (1921).
With the book Yidish-taytshn (1937; “Yiddish Meanings,” alluding to the Yiddish Bible translations called taytshn), Glatstein began his return to Jewish themes. In one poem (“Shomer”) he acknowledges that he previously avoided Yiddish characters such as Abramovitsh’s Fishke the Lame, but he there reaffirms his link to folk traditions. This affirmation intensified following the Nazis’ annexation of Austria. “A gute nakht, velt” (1938; “Good Night, World”) is an enraged outcry in which Glatstein renounces Western civilization and defiantly turns back to the Jewish ghetto. As the destruction of eastern European Jews was taking place, Glatstein published Gedenklider (1943; “Memorial Poems”). A persona poem, “Der bratslaver tsu zayn soyfer” (“The Bratslav Rebbe to His Scribe”), in the voice of Rabbi Naḥman of Bratslav, continues his reappropriation of Jewish culture. Shtralndike yidn (1946; “Radiant Jews”) expresses sadness and despair following the Holocaust. In that volume the poem “Vidershtand in geto” (“Resistance in the Ghetto”) takes on the collective voice of starving Jews who fought the Germans in Warsaw and elsewhere. In “Nisht di meysim loybn got” (“The Dead Do Not Praise God”), Glatstein sings of the Judaic tradition while announcing its death: “We received the Torah at Mount Sinai, / And in Lublin we gave it back.” Many of his poems appear in English translation in American Yiddish Poetry (1986).
Y.L. Teller is another major American Yiddish poet and journalist who expressed the turbulence of his age. Younger than the founders of Introspectivism, he began writing in a dreamy, Symbolist mode. His early books Simboln (1930; “Symbols”) and Minyaturn (1934; “Miniatures”) emphasize the self and natural descriptions. But Teller worked as a journalist for, among other papers, Der morgnzhurnal (“The Morning Paper”), and his reportage gradually infiltrated his poetry. His third poetry volume, Lider fun der tsayt (1940; “Poems of the Age”), confronts recent political events in all their guises—imagining, for example, the Nazis’ march into Vienna. Perhaps most remarkable—in contradistinction to his earlier work—is Teller’s cycle of poems entitled “Psychoanalysis,” in which the German Jewish financier Jud Süss Oppenheimer meets Sigmund Freud, and Freud responds to the Nazis.
Since World War II the only Yiddish author to achieve world renown has been Isaac Bashevis Singer, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978. He was born in Poland in 1904 and moved to New York City in 1935. In Yiddish he published under the name Isaac Bashevis (Yitskhak Bashevis) to distinguish himself from his brother I.J. Singer. His best novel is perhaps the early, experimental Der sotn in Goray (1935; Satan in Goray), which begins as an historical novel. As it recreates the aura following the massacres instigated by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1648, it refers to the false messiah Shabbetai Tzevi. (Bohdan Khmelnytsky was a Cossack leader who led an uprising against Polish landowners; his forces also destroyed hundreds of Ukrainian Jewish communities.) Revolving around a case of possession by a dybbuk, or disembodied spirit, the novel anticipates Singer’s later fascination with demons. The final segment, which purports to be the text of a document from the 17th century about “the dybbuk of Goray,” is stylistically interesting for its deliberate archaisms. Singer subsequently wrote a number of successful monologues spoken by demons, such as Mayse Tishevits (“A Tale of Tishevitz,” Eng. trans. The Last Demon in The Collected Stories of Isaac Bashevis Singer [1982]). His best-known work is Gimpl Tam (written in the mid-1940s but first published in 1953; Eng. trans. in Gimpel the Fool and Other Stories [1957]), a short story that was powerfully translated by Saul Bellow. Using first-person narrative—by a simple man who allows himself to be duped by the community—it evokes the shtetl in a humorous and nostalgic manner. Singer’s stories were regularly published in the Forverts and in The New Yorker; they appealed to American readers who sought to find a connection to eastern European life before the Holocaust.