The modern circus came into being in England in 1768 when Philip Astley, a former sergeant major turned trick rider, found that if he galloped in a circle while standing on his horse’s back, centrifugal and centripetal forces helped him to keep his balance. It is perhaps because of this discovery that he is often credited with having invented the circus ring, but it was in fact a device that had been in use for some time by trick riders. He did, however, experiment with the ring in order to determine its optimum size for both rider safety and audience sight lines; his first ring was about 62 feet (19 metres) in diameter, and he eventually adopted the more-popular 42-foot (13-metre) standard that is still used in modern circuses. Astley’s shows consisted only of trick riding exhibitions until 1770, when he hired a clown (“Mr. Merryman”), musicians, and other performers for his show in order to provide spectators with a diverse entertainment. Because of these innovations, he is credited with having developed the modern circus. He eventually built a roof over his ring and added a stage for dramatic performances.

Astley discovered that similar developments were occurring in France when he traveled to that country in 1772 to present his “daring feats of horsemanship” before King Louis XV at Fontainebleau. Ten years later Astley returned to Paris and opened an amphitheatre (one of 19 permanent circuses he built during his lifetime) at Rue de Faubourg du Temple, near the Boulevard du Crime, where the Place de la République stands today. He left Paris in 1793, following the outbreak of the French Revolution, whereupon his Parisian circus was taken over by the Italian Antonio Franconi, a member of a noble Venetian family who had been forced into exile after a fatal duel. Franconi became first a showman and later a trick rider, but it was as a director that he excelled. His sons, Laurent and Henri, together with their wives and children, continued in his footsteps, and the Franconi family is generally credited with the founding of the French circus. They are also credited with having standardized the diameter of the ring at 13 metres (approximately 42 feet). In 1802, with the arrival of Napoleon and his empire, Astley resumed control of his Paris circus. The Franconis moved to Rue du Mont-Thabor, where they built another circus.

Concurrent with these developments, a rival horseman and former Astley employee named Charles Hughes traveled to Russia in 1773 to perform for Catherine the Great in the royal palace of St. Petersburg. He took with him a small company of trick riders and taught horsemanship at the court. Hughes is therefore sometimes credited with having introduced the circus to Russia, but his exhibitions encompassed only trick riding. (The first Russian circus to incorporate a full complement of acts was that of the Frenchman Jacques Tourniaire, a first-rate equestrian who built a short-lived circus in St. Petersburg.) Hughes went on to introduce the term circus in 1782, when he opened what he called the Royal Circus a few hundred yards south of Astley’s amphitheatre.

From the time of its origin in England, the circus was often presented in a theatre setting, mostly in permanent or semipermanent buildings of flimsy construction. The greatest hazard to these theatres was fire, from which Astley suffered particularly: his amphitheatre burned down three times in the first 62 years of its history. At Astley’s, the Royal Circus, and elsewhere, a proscenium arch and large scenic stage were set behind a ring, creating a sense of theatre. Within these settings riders on horseback acted out pantomimed stories based on famous battles and sieges. As advertised in an old Astley handbill, such acts sought to demonstrate the battle techniques of “a general engagement, sword in hand, with the different postures of offence, for the safety of man and horse.” In France this genre of horseback entertainment was eventually exiled to traditional theatres.

John Bill Ricketts and the American circus

By the late 18th century the circus had spread throughout Europe and had gained a fragile foothold in the United States. In 1793 John Bill Ricketts, a Scottish rider and former student of Hughes, presented exhibitions in Philadelphia and New York City consisting of trick riding, rope walkers, tumblers, pantomimes, and a clown. Because Ricketts was the first in the United States to offer such variety for an evening’s entertainment, he is credited with the country’s introduction to the circus. The main feature of his show was his own equestrian act, in which he leaped from his galloping horse over a ribbon suspended 12 feet (3.7 metres) in the air and then landed back in the saddle. Animals would not become commonplace in American circuses for several years, but Ricketts’s steed, Cornplanter, is regarded as the first star animal performer in the United States. Within a few years Ricketts would hire John Durang, who is believed to have been the first American-born circus clown.

Despite the variety of acts presented by Ricketts and other early entrepreneurs, the main attraction of the circus was always the riding act. Such acts often required a “ringmaster” to keep the horses running properly as the rider performed tricks. In time the role of the ringmaster expanded into that of an emcee (and an occasional foil for clowns); today’s ringmasters still wear traditional riding garb.

In the tradition of Astley’s and other European circuses, Ricketts’s productions featured a pantomime—or, as it came to be known, the “spectacular,” or “spec” in circus jargon. As in Astley’s circus, Ricketts’s specs sometimes dramatized famous battles, but they also evolved to re-create historical incidents, ancient myths, and Bible stories. Sometimes they consisted of a grand pageant in which the entire circus company, dressed in glittering costumes, paraded through the arena (the form in which the spec has endured into modern times).

Unfortunately, Ricketts’s endeavour, like Astley’s before him, fell victim to fire, the most notorious enemy of circuses. Shortly after losing his New York circus to fire, Ricketts returned to Philadelphia, where in 1799 yet another of his circuses burned to the ground. After a few unsuccessful attempts at rebuilding his career, the discouraged and near-bankrupt Ricketts set sail for England, hoping to reestablish himself in that country. The ship on which he sailed, however, perished at sea on an unknown date in 1800, claiming the lives of all aboard.

History

After Ricketts’s death the popularity of the circus waned in the United States, although certain troupes had sporadic success during the early 19th century. The European circus of Pepin and Breschard, for instance, was well received at the turn of the century. It was also about this time that the popularity of exotic animals was noted by exhibitors, with the arrival of the first elephant on the North American continent in 1796. The animal, owned at first by Captain Jacob Crowninshield (and recorded in history only as “Crowninshield’s elephant”), became the first elephant to be exhibited with a circus when it joined the Cayetano, Codet, Menial & Redon Circus of New York in 1812.

The second elephant on American shores, Old Bet, was even more popular and is credited with having established the circus tradition of the animal menagerie. Old Bet was owned by Hackaliah Bailey of Somers, New York. Between 1809 and 1816 Bailey toured with the elephant, walking with the animal from town to town under the cover of night in order to prevent anyone from having a free look at the beast. Old Bet’s popularity inspired Bailey’s farmer-neighbours to set out with menageries of their own. In a very short time there were noteworthy traveling collections of wild animals, such as the Zoological Institute of the June brothers. June, Titus & Angevine and Van Amburgh’s Menagerie also set up permanent establishments in the larger cities. Similar exhibitions developed in England, which led to such famous traveling menageries as Bostock & Wombwell’s. Some menageries were as large as full traveling zoos, although most of them could be contained within two or three wagons.

Other important innovations during this time included the introduction of the circus tent, or “big top,” which was first used about 1825 on the itinerating show of the American J. Purdy Brown. His reasons for exhibiting shows under canvas tents (which were at first very small, housing one ring and a few hundred seats) are unknown, but it was an innovation that became a standard component of circuses for more than a century and a half. It allowed Brown to become the first operator to travel widely with his circus, which he did throughout Virginia in 1826 and along the banks of the Mississippi River in 1828. His show featured minstrel numbers as well as acts common to other circuses of the time. It would eventually offer an animal menagerie, the first (in 1832) to be incorporated into a circus setting.

The American circus lost its most important promoter when Brown died suddenly following a performance in 1834. It would be nearly four decades before entrepreneurs as influential as Ricketts or Brown would reemerge and expand the circus to newfound heights of popularity. Until that time, circuses maintained a fair level of success with traveling shows such as the Mount Pitt Circus, as well as those featuring the animal tamer Isaac Van Amburgh and the famous American clown Dan Rice.

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The United States gradually became the world leader in circus innovations, however, eclipsing European circuses in terms of scale and extravagance by adding rings to the performance space and exhibiting shows under larger and larger tents, or “tops.” The American circus truly came to the forefront of international developments through the efforts of P.T. Barnum, who was already a household name by the time he promoted his first circus at age 61. Barnum began his career as a showman (and charlatan) in 1834 by promoting Joice Heth, an African American woman in her 80s, as the 161-year-old former nurse to George Washington. His next major enterprise was the acquisition of New York’s American Museum, which he turned into a showcase for the sensational and the bizarre. More than 82 million visitors—including such notables as Henry James, Charles Dickens, and the prince of Wales—visited the museum to examine its human and animal curiosities, some genuine (such as Chang and Eng, the “original” Siamese twins), some bogus (such as the “Feejee Mermaid,” a creature fabricated by attaching the body of a fish to the head of a monkey). Barnum closed the museum in 1868 after losing it twice to fire and then spent a few years promoting individual attractions (such as Swedish singer Jenny Lind) before becoming partners with W.C. Coup in 1871. With Coup, Barnum produced a spectacular circus in Brooklyn, New York, that was billed as the “Greatest Show on Earth.” It offered several attractions borrowed from Barnum’s museum, from which evolved the sideshow, a feature unique to American circuses.

Before 1872 most itinerating circuses moved from town to town by horse and wagon, a form of transport that necessarily limited their size and the distances they could cover in a given season. In the spring of that year, Barnum and his partners loaded their show onto 65 railroad cars and thereby gave birth to the age of the giant railroad circuses. Circuses could then move greater distances and perform in towns that had the space and the population to support the large shows. Barnum’s own “Greatest Show on Earth” eventually traveled on three separate trains, going distances of 100 miles (160 km) or more in a single night. Later in the century, Coup would introduce the end loading of circus trains, in which the gaps between flatcars were bridged by iron plates and each wagon, fully loaded, was pushed down the plates of the train to its assigned place. American circuses thus became models of logistic efficiency, their methods leading to the creation of the modern system of rail-truck freight handling.

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In the 1880s Barnum began to produce shows in partnership with James A. Bailey. These productions would define circuses in the United States for more than a century. Bailey was best known as the promoter of the Great International Circus, which staged successful tours of the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand in the 1870s. Regarded as the best circus organizer in the business, he was a perfect partner for Barnum, who was himself known as the best showman in the business. Their circus offered the types of acts that had been established throughout the 19th century, but they had so many acts and operated on such a large scale that the show required the use of two (1873) and then three (1881) rings. Perhaps the most famous attraction of the early Barnum & Bailey circus was the legendary Jumbo, the largest elephant in the world, which Barnum acquired in 1882.

Barnum & Bailey’s main competitors during the late 19th century were the Ringling brothers, who established their first circus in 1884. During this period and into the early 20th century, the Ringlings expanded their organization by acquiring several smaller circuses.

Continental European and British circuses generally retained the one-ring format in the mid- to late 19th century; their programs were often of the highest calibre, and their tents may have seated as many as 5,000 spectators. In order to maintain the one-ring design while expanding the area beneath the tent, the European tent was designed with the four centre poles forming a square instead of a single-file line as with American big tops. European circuses were also often performed in permanent buildings—at the Circus Schumann in Copenhagen, for example, and at the venerable Cirque d’Hiver in Paris, which dates from 1852. In Russia and certain other areas of the former Soviet Union, the circus was regarded as an art form and received lavish state support and beautiful permanent spaces. To this day nearly every city of any size in the former Soviet states boasts a permanent circus building. Throughout Europe rail transport for circuses was never very popular, and, although a few attempts at traveling by rail were made, it was not until the second quarter of the 20th century that rail travel came into regular use by any European show. In Latin America and East Asia it was used, when available, after 1900.

In the United States and to some extent in Europe, circuses annually retired to winter quarters to rest and refurbish for another season. Among the cities that became identified as winter-quarters towns were Peru, Indiana, which sheltered Hagenbeck-Wallace and other shows; Baraboo, Wisconsin, the winter home for the Ringling Bros. Circus and the Ringlings’ cousins the Gollmar Brothers; Delavan, Wisconsin, home to more than a dozen circuses; and Bridgeport, Connecticut, which for nearly 50 years served as headquarters for Barnum’s “Greatest Show on Earth,” until the Ringlings moved the operations of the combined show to Sarasota, Florida, in 1927.