The Romantic era (c. 1790–1915)

Orchestration

Another expansion of Classical trends is seen in the concerto orchestra, with the larger number, greater variety, and more discriminating use of its instruments. It is true that only the thinnest possible “support” for the soloist sufficed for composer-performers such as the pianist Chopin, the violinist Paganini, and others whose musical thinking ranged but little beyond the spheres of their own instruments. But the orchestra developed the status of a genuine if not superior adversary of the soloist in newly resourceful orchestrations by composers of wider instrumental perspective. Examples of this exploitation of the orchestra include Harold en Italie (1834), a symphony with solo viola, by the French composer Hector Berlioz; Piano Concerto No. 1 in E Flat Major (published 1857), by Liszt; and Burleske (completed 1885) for piano and orchestra, by the German Richard Strauss. At the same time, the piano, as the ideal Romantic instrument, secured ever more firmly its Classical preeminence as the preferred solo vehicle of the concerto. Although the total output of violin concerti in particular was very great, there was a decided preponderance of piano concerti among all concerti that appeared on printed public concert programs. In turn, the use of the piano in concerti was one main incentive for further advances in piano construction. By the mid-19th century the instrument reached a peak very close to the sonorous, seven-octave, triple-strung, cast-iron framed behemoth that is the modern “concert grand.” With its perfection came also the extension of keyboard technique to the last reaches of athletic dexterity. Evidence of such technical development includes the unreasonably difficult requirements of the three etudes (“studies”) that comprise the huge unaccompanied Concerto, Opus 39, Nos. 8–10, by the French pianist-composer Alkan (Charles-Henri Morhange). It is also apparent in the more reasonable but no less difficult requirements in Rachmaninoff’s Piano Concerto No. 3 in D Minor, Opus 30 (1909). The wind instruments used in concerto solos underwent mechanical advances, too, and both they and the stringed instruments enjoyed analogous exploitations of their technical possibilities in this century of virtuosos—not only of Liszt (and so many more) on the piano but of others such as Paganini on the violin, Alfredo Piatti on the cello, and Domenico Dragonetti on the double bass.

Romantic innovations

The most significant extension or expansion of the concerto principle in the Romantic era might in one sense be called a contraction, for it concerns a continuing effort to consolidate, interrelate, and fuse the over-all cycle, both within and between the movements. Certain composers, mostly forgotten perfunctories, yet including as important and successful a figure as Chopin, were satisfied to pour new wine into old bottles. Thus many concerti accepted without question the movement forms and cycle that by then had become self-conscious stereotypes, especially “sonata form” in the first movement. Brahms largely preferred to accept the traditional cycle and forms, too, but with the masterful individuality, flexibility, and logic that were needed to revitalize them. On the other hand, most of the Romantics whose concerti are still played sought to modernize and advance the traditional structural principles. These changes may be summed up in six categories.

First, there is the elimination, in the opening movement, of the long initial tutti section. This innovation corresponded to the elimination in the sonata of the previously customary repeat of the exposition, a change that had begun in Beethoven’s late sonatas and had soon become general. Such is the pattern in Schumann’s Piano Concerto in A Minor, Opus 54 (1845), in which the soloist enters at the outset and proceeds promptly to an almost constant interrelationship with the orchestra as the exposition unfolds but once.

Second, there is the interlocking of the movements, achieved by leading not only from one movement to the next without appreciable pause in time or sound but also without either a definitive cadence (stopping point made clear by the harmonies) or full break in the continuity of harmonies or tonality. Thus in the Violin Concerto in E Minor, Opus 64 (1844), of Felix Mendelssohn, a lone bassoon suspends one note of the final chord of the first movement. Preventing a pause in time or sound, it leads directly into the middle movement. Again, between the middle and final movements a brief interlude, midway in tempo, mood, and intensity, supplies the continuity and avoids any full break.

A third Romantic innovation is the effort to bind the cycle more positively through the use of related themes and motives in the successive movements. Such themes and motives can be only melodic nuclei, as in the so-called basic motive employed by Brahms. Or they may be more extended melodic thoughts, such as are subjected to “thematic metamorphosis” by Liszt or “cyclical” treatment by the Belgian César Franck. (Both terms refer to the practice of transforming a theme melodically and rhythmically in various ways throughout the cycle of movements.) Among well-known examples is the tight thematic organization, with its final retrospective summary, in the four interconnected movements of Liszt’s Piano Concerto No. 1 (Triangle Concerto, published 1857), a work Liszt himself claimed to be innovational on this account.

Fourth, there are certain other, more incidental, yet effective means of unifying the cycle. These include the sense of culminating joy or triumph in those many concerti that change from a minor home key to its tonic major (for example, from A minor to A major) for the finale; or the consistency of musical textures caused by making all the movements similar in weight and style; or the stronger sense of return achieved by a finale that follows a middle movement characterized by a marked sense of departure or contrast.

The remaining two categories of changes concern Romantic developments that go somewhat beyond expansions (or contractions) of Classical concerto traditions. As a fifth category, there is the extramusical unification of the cycle by means of a program—that is, a story or image. Unlike the Romantic sonata, the Romantic concerto abounds in examples. One of the earliest such examples is the image that the German composer Carl Maria von Weber identified with his Konzertstück (Concert Piece) for piano and orchestra (1821). Its four interconnected movements are said to describe a medieval lady’s longing for her absent knight, her agonized fears for his safety, the excitement of his impending return, and the joys of reunion and love.

Sixth and last, there are numerous efforts to contract or consolidate the concerto cycle still more drastically, by fusion of movements. Four different solutions may be cited as representative. Tchaikovsky’s Piano Concerto No. 1 in B Flat Minor (1875) follows a number of symphonies and sonatas of the period by integrating the slow movement with the scherzo (a lively movement that had become a rather frequent additional item in the cycle). Liszt’s Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Major (published 1863) is a pioneer among the several concerti that reduce the separate movements to sharply contrasting sections within a single movement. Franck’s Variations symphoniques for piano and orchestra (first performed 1885) substitute for the cycle a single movement based on a single principle of musical structure (in contrast to the distinct structures of distinct movements). And the Russian Nikolay Medtner’s Piano Concerto in G Minor is a single, experimental variation of “sonata form.” It consists, as he himself explains,

of an exposition, [a short, transitional cadenza,] a series of [nine] variations on the two chief themes, constituting the development [section], and then the recapitulation.

Still other changes from the Classical to the Romantic concerto are concerned less with overall plans than with language and idiom: the characteristic harmonies, melodic styles, and manner of musical development. But such changes were not limited to the concerto. They touched all of Romantic music. Among them are fuller, more varied textures, greater use of the high and low extremes of instruments’ ranges, and more sonorous, widespread spacing of sounds. Indicative of the third development was the significant change in piano writing from the Alberti bass in close position to the “um-pah-pah” bass and free arpeggiations in open position.

In addition there was a marked new preference for minor keys as being almost indispensable to the intensity of Romantic feeling. There was also an increased use of chromatic harmonies (chords whose notes do not all belong to the key of the composition and that frequently seem to have a more expressive character). Similarly characteristic of the era were brief, temporary modulations whose functions were more colouristic than structural (i.e., they were introduced more for the harmonic colour they embody rather than strictly as a means of changing keys). Another new development was the late-Romantic turn to nationalistic colours, introducing folk melodies or allowing folk music to influence melodies, harmonies, and rhythms. An example is the Symphonie espagnole for violin and orchestra (1875), by the French composer Édouard Lalo.

Major contributions

From beginning to end in the Romantic era, Germany reigned supreme in the concerto, both as leader and producer, as with all the major instrumental forms. The majority of the non-Germans whose concerti were more or less successful in their day were at least trained in Germany. Some of the most important of the Romantics from both in and out of Germany, along with their significant concerti, include: the piano concerti of the Czech Jan Ladislav Dussek and the Germans Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Ignaz Moscheles, all renowned virtuoso pianists; the Konzertstücke of Weber; two concerti by Mendelssohn; and, especially, two by Chopin and the one by Schumann. Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto in E Minor continued to hold top position in its class, along with the violin concerti of Beethoven, Brahms, and Tchaikovsky. These works followed and eclipsed the successes of Viotti, Paganini, the German Ludwig Spohr, and other violinist composers. Schumann left one of the era’s few most played cello concerti, two others being the later ones by Saint-Saëns and the Czech Antonín Dvořák. As noted, Liszt was a pathbreaker with his two piano concerti. His other, more programmatic works for piano and orchestra were less played in the 20th century, but they also exercised a variety of influences on such different late-Romantics as Grieg, Franck, the American Edward MacDowell, Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss, and the Hungarian Ernő Dohnányi. Brahms’s concerti, every one a highly popular masterpiece, mark a peak for the era on the conservative side. They include besides the two piano concerti in D minor and B-flat major, the Violin Concerto in D Major and the Double Concerto in A Minor (with violin and cello as the solo instruments). Among later romantic concerti, though those onetime favourites for violin by Henri Vieuxtemps, Henryk Wieniawski, Max Bruch, Karl Goldmark, Aleksandr Glazunov, and Sir Edward Elgar lost much ground in the concert hall, those of Dvořák, Saint-Saëns, the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius, and, especially, Tchaikovsky held strong. Similarly, while the piano concerti of the famed piano virtuoso Anton Rubinstein were all but forgotten, two (in G minor and C minor) out of the five by Saint-Saëns and the Concerto No. 2 in D Minor by MacDowell got occasional hearings, and those already mentioned by Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff remained among the most successful. Certain concerti were less likely to be heard at least partly because they were written for less usual solo instruments. These include works for bassoon by Weber; for clarinet by Spohr, Weber, and Ferruccio Busoni; and for horn by Weber and Richard Strauss.