Drama in Eastern cultures
Because of its inborn conservatism, the dramatic literature of the East does not show such diversity, despite its variety of cultures and subcultures. The major features of Asian drama may be seen in the three great classical sources of India, China, and Japan. The simplicity of the Indian stage, a platform erected for the occasion in a palace or a courtyard, like the simplicity of the Elizabethan stage, lent great freedom to the imagination of the playwright. In the plays of India’s greatest playwright, Kalidasa (fl. 5th century ce), there is an exquisite refinement of detail in presentation. His delicate romantic tales leap time and place by simple suggestion and mingle courtly humour and lighthearted wit with charming sentiment and religious piety. Quite untrammeled by realism, lyrical in tone and refined in feeling, his fanciful love and adventure stories completely justify their function as pure entertainment. His plots are without the pain of reality, and his characters never descend from the ideal: such poetic drama is entirely appropriate to the Hindu aesthetic of blissful idealism in art.
Some contrast may be felt between the idealistic style of the Sanskrit drama and the broader, less courtly manner of the Chinese and its derivatives in Southeast Asia. These plays cover a large variety of subjects and styles, but all combine music, speech, song, and dance, as does all Asian drama. Heroic legends, pathetic moral stories, and brilliant farces all blended spectacle and lyricism and were as acceptable to a sophisticated court audience as to a popular street audience. The most important Chinese plays stem from the Yuan dynasty (1206–1368), in which an episodic narrative is carefully structured and unified. Each scene introduces a song whose lines have a single rhyme, usually performed by one singer, with a code of symbolic gestures and intonations that has been refined to an extreme. The plays have strongly typed heroes and villains, simple plots, scenes of bold emotion, and moments of pure mime.
The drama of Japan, with its exquisite artistry of gesture and mime and its symbolism of setting and costume, took two major directions. Noh drama, emerging from religious ritual, maintained a special refinement appropriate to its origins and its aristocratic audiences. Kabuki (its name suggesting its composition: ka, “singing”; bu, “dancing”; ki, “acting”) in the 17th century became Japan’s popular drama. Noh theatre is reminiscent of the religious tragedy of the Greeks in the remoteness of its legendary content, in its masked heroic characters, in its limit of two actors and a chorus, and in the static, oratorical majesty of its style. Kabuki, on the other hand, finds its material in domestic stories and in popular history, and the actors, without masks, move and speak more freely, without seeming to be realistic. Kabuki plays are less rarefied and are often fiercely energetic and wildly emotional, as befitting their presentation before a broader audience. The written text of the Noh play is highly poetic and pious in tone, compressed in its imaginative ideas, fastidious and restrained in verbal expression, and formal in its sparse plotting, whereas the text of a Kabuki play lends plentiful opportunities for spectacle, sensation, and melodrama. In Kabuki there can be moments of realism but also whole episodes of mime and acrobatics; there can be moments of slapstick but also moments of violent passion. In all, the words are subordinate to performance in Kabuki.
Drama and communal belief
The drama that is most meaningful and pertinent to its society is that which arises from it. The religious drama of ancient Greece, the temple drama of early India and Japan, the mystery cycles of medieval Europe, all have in common more than their religious content: when the theatre is a place of worship, its drama goes to the roots of belief in a particular community. The dramatic experience becomes a natural extension of human life—both of the individual and of the social being. The content of the mystery cycles speaks formally for the orthodox dogma of the church, thus seeming to place the plays at the centre of medieval life, like the church itself. Within such a comprehensive scheme, particular needs could be satisfied by comic or pathetic demonstration. For example, such a crucial belief as that of the Virgin Birth of Jesus was presented in the York (England) cycle of mystery plays, of the 14th–16th centuries, with a nicely balanced didacticism when Joseph wonders how a man of his age could have got Mary with child and an angel explains what has happened; the humour reflects the simplicity of the audience and at the same time indicates the perfect faith that permitted the near-blasphemy of the joke. In the tragedies Shakespeare wrote for the Elizabethan theatre, he had the same gift of satisfying deep communal needs while meeting a whole range of individual interests present in his audience.
When the whole community shares a common heritage, patriotic drama and drama commemorating national heroes, as are seen almost universally in Asian theatre, is of this kind. Modern Western attempts at a religious didactic drama, or indeed at any drama of “ideas,” have had to reckon with the disparate nature of the audience. Thus the impact of Ibsen’s social drama both encouraged and divided the development of the theatre in the last years of the 19th century. Plays such as A Doll’s House (1879) and Ghosts (published 1881), which challenged the sanctity of marriage and questioned the loyalty a wife owed to her husband, took their audiences by storm: some violently rejected the criticism of their cherished social beliefs, and thus such plays may be said to have failed to persuade general audiences to examine their moral position; on the other hand, there were sufficient numbers of enthusiasts (so-called Ibsenites) to stimulate a new drama of ideas. Problem plays appeared all over Europe and undoubtedly rejuvenated the theatre for the 20th century. Shaw’s early Ibsenite plays in London, which presented drawing-room comedy with such sober themes as slum landlordism (Widowers’ Houses, 1892) and prostitution (Mrs. Warren’s Profession, 1902), resulted only in failure, but Shaw quickly found a comic style that was more disarming. In his attack on false patriotism (Arms and the Man, 1894) and the motives for middle-class marriage (Candida, 1897), he does not affront his audiences. He leads them by gentle laughter and surprise to review their own positions.
