Evaluation and study

It has been only in comparatively recent times that the novel has been taken sufficiently seriously by critics for the generation of aesthetic appraisal and the formulation of fictional theories. The first critics of the novel developed their craft not in full-length books but in reviews published in periodicals: much of this writing—in the late 18th and early 19th centuries—was of an occasional nature, and not a little of it casual and desultory; nor, at first, did critics of fiction find it easy to separate a kind of moral judgment of the subject matter from an aesthetic judgment of the style. Such fragmentary observations on the novel as those made by Dr. Johnson in conversation or by Jane Austen in her letters, or, in France, by Gustave Flaubert during the actual process of artistic gestation, have the charm and freshness of insight rather than the weight of true aesthetic judgment. It is perhaps not until the beginning of the 20th century, when Henry James wrote his authoritative prefaces to his own collected novels, that a true criteriology of fiction can be said to have come into existence. The academic study of the novel presupposes some general body of theory, like that provided by Percy Lubbock’s Craft of Fiction (1921) or E.M. Forster’s Aspects of the Novel (1927) or the subsequent writings of the critics Edmund Wilson and F.R. Leavis. Since World War II it may be said that university courses in the evaluation of fiction have attained the dignity traditionally monopolized by poetry and the drama.

A clear line should be drawn between the craft of fiction criticism and the journeyman work of fiction reviewing. Reviews are mainly intended to provide immediate information about new novels: they are done quickly and are subject to the limitations of space; they not infrequently make hasty judgments that are later regretted. The qualifications sought in a reviewer are not formidable: smartness, panache, waspishness—qualities that often draw the attention of the reader to the personality of the reviewer rather than the work under review—will always be more attractive to circulation-hunting editors than a less spectacular concern with balanced judgment. A thoughtful editor will sometimes put the reviewing of novels into the hands of a practicing novelist, who—knowing the labor that goes into even the meanest book—will be inclined to sympathy more than to flamboyant condemnation. The best critics of fiction are probably novelists manqués, men who have attempted the art and, if not exactly failed, not succeeded as well as they could have wished. Novelists who achieve very large success are possibly not to be trusted as critics: obsessed by their own individual aims and attainments, shorn of self-doubt by the literary world’s acclaim or their royalty statements, they bring to other men’s novels a kind of magisterial blindness.

Novelists can be elated by good reviews and depressed by bad ones, but it is rare that a novelist’s practice is much affected by what he reads about himself in the literary columns. Genuine criticism is a very different matter, and a writer’s approach to his art can be radically modified by the arguments and summations of a critic he respects or fears. As the hen is unable to judge of the quality of the egg it lays, so the novelist is rarely able to explain or evaluate his work. He relies on the professional critic for the elucidation of the patterns in his novels, for an account of their subliminal symbolism, for a reasoned exposition of their stylistic faults. As for the novel reader, he will often learn enthusiasm for particular novelists through the writings of critics rather than from direct confrontation with the novels themselves. The essays in Edmund Wilson’s Axel’s Castle (1931) aroused an interest in the Symbolist movement which the movement was not easily able to arouse by itself; the essay on Finnegans Wake, collected in Wilson’s Wound and the Bow (1941), eased the way into a very difficult book in a manner that no grim work of solid exegesis could have achieved. The essence of the finest criticism derives from wisdom and humanity more than from mere expert knowledge. Great literature and great criticism possess in common a sort of penumbra of wide but unsystematic learning, a devotion to civilized values, an awareness of tradition, and a willingness to rely occasionally on the irrational and intuitive.

All this probably means that the criticism of fiction can never, despite the efforts of aestheticians schooled in modern linguistics, become an exact science. A novel must be evaluated in terms of a firmly held literary philosophy, but such a philosophy is, in the final analysis, based on the irrational and subjective. If the major premises on which F.R. Leavis bases his judgments of George Eliot, Mark Twain, and D.H. Lawrence are accepted, then an acceptance of the judgments themselves is inescapable. But many students of fiction who are skeptical of Leavis will read him in order that judgments of their own may emerge out of a purely negative rejection of his. In reading criticism a kind of dialectic is involved, but no synthesis is ever final. The process of revaluation goes on for ever. One of the sure tests of a novel’s worth is its capacity for engendering critical dialectic: no novel is beyond criticism, but many are beneath it.

The future of the novel

It is apparent that neither law nor public morality nor the public’s neglect nor the critic’s scorn has ever seriously deflected the dedicated novelist from his self-imposed task of interpreting the real world or inventing alternative worlds. Statistics since World War II have shown a steady increase in the number of novels published annually, and beneath the iceberg tip of published fiction lies a submarine Everest of unpublished work. It has been said that every person has at least one novel in him, and the near-universal literacy of the West has produced dreams of authorship in social ranks traditionally deprived of literature. Some of these dreams come true, and taxi drivers, pugilists, criminals, and film stars have competed, often successfully, in a field that once belonged to professional writers alone. It is significant that the amateur who dreams of literary success almost invariably chooses the novel, not the poem, essay, or autobiography. Fiction requires no special training and can be readable, even absorbing, when it breaks the most elementary rules of style. It tolerates a literary incompetence unthinkable in the poem. If all professional novelists withdrew, the form would not languish: amateurs would fill the market with first and only novels, all of which would find readership.

But the future of any art lies with its professionals. Here a distinction has to be made between the Joyces, Henry Jameses, and Conrads on the one hand, and the more ephemeral Mickey Spillanes, Harold Robbinses, and Irving Wallaces on the other. Of the skill of the latter class of novelists there can be no doubt, but it is a skill employed for limited ends, chiefly the making of money, and through it the novel can never advance as art. The literary professionals, however, are dedicated to the discovery of new means of expressing, through the experiential immediacies that are the very stuff of fiction, the nature of man and society. In the symbiosis of publishing, the best-seller will probably continue to finance genuine fictional art. Despite the competition from other art media, and the agonies and the indigence, there are indications that the serious novel will flourish in the future.

It will flourish because it is the one literary form capable of absorbing all the others. The technique of the stage drama or the film can be employed in the novel (as in Ulysses and Giles Goat-Boy), as can the devices of poetry (as in Philip Toynbee’s Pantaloon and the novels of Wilson Harris and Janet Frame). In France, as Michel Butor has pointed out, the new novel is increasingly performing some of the tasks of the old essay; in America, as Capote’s In Cold Blood and Mailer’s Armies of the Night have shown, the documentary report can gain strength from its presentation as fictional narrative. There are few limits on what the novel can do, there are many experimental paths still to be trod, and there is never any shortage of subject matter.

For all this, periods of decline and inanition may be expected, though not everywhere at once. The strength of the American novel in the period after World War II had something to do with the national atmosphere of breakdown and change: political and social urgencies promoted a quality of urgency in the works of such writers as Mailer, Bellow, Ellison, Heller, and Philip Roth. In the same period, Britain, having shed its empire and erected a welfare state, robbed its novelists of anything larger to write about than temporary indentations in the class system, suburban adultery, and manners. An achieved or static society does not easily produce great art. France, which has known much social and ideological turmoil, has generated a new aesthetic of the novel as well as a philosophy that, as Sartre and Camus have shown, is very suitable for fictional expression. A state on which intellectual quietism or a political philosophy of art is imposed by the ruling party can, as the Soviet Union and China show, succeed only in thwarting literary greatness, but the examples of Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn are reminders that repression can, with rare artistic spirits, act as an agonizing stimulus.

Every art in every country is subject to a cyclical process; during a period of decline it is necessary to keep the communication lines open, producing minor art so that it may some day, unexpectedly, turn into major art. Wherever the novel seems to be dying it is probably settling into sleep; elsewhere it will be alive and vigorous enough. It is important to believe that the novel has a future, though not everywhere at once.