Medieval prose romances
Arthurian themes
The Arthurian prose romances arose out of the attempt, made first by Robert de Boron in the verse romances Joseph d’Arimathie, ou le Roman de l’estoire dou Graal and Merlin (c. 1190–1200), to combine the fictional history of the Holy Grail with the chronicle of the reign of King Arthur. Robert gave his story an allegorical meaning, related to the person and work of Christ. A severe condemnation of secular chivalry and courtly love characterize the Grail branch of the prose Lancelot-Grail, or Vulgate, cycle as well as some parts of the post-Vulgate “romance of the Grail” (after 1225); in the one case, Lancelot (here representing fallen human nature) and, in the other, Balain (who strikes the Dolorous Stroke) are contrasted with Galahad, a type of the Redeemer. The conflict between earthly chivalry and the demands of religion is absent from the Perlesvaus (after 1230?), in which the hero Perlesvaus (that is, Perceval) has Christological overtones and in which the task of knighthood is to uphold and advance Christianity. A 13th-century prose Tristan (Tristan de Léonois), fundamentally an adaptation of the Tristan story to an Arthurian setting, complicates the love theme of the original with the theme of a love rivalry between Tristan and the converted Saracen Palamède and represents the action as a conflict between the treacherous villain King Mark and the “good” knight Tristan.
(Read Sir Walter Scott’s 1824 Britannica essay on chivalry.)
In the 14th century, when chivalry enjoyed a new vogue as a social ideal and the great orders of secular chivalry were founded, the romance writers, to judge from what is known of the voluminous Perceforest (written c. 1330 and still unpublished in its entirety), evolved an acceptable compromise between the knight’s duty to his king, to his lady, and to God. Chivalry as an exalted ideal of conduct finds its highest expression in the anonymous Middle English Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight (c. 1370), whose fantastic beheading scene (presumably taken from a lost French prose romance source) is made to illustrate the fidelity to the pledged word, the trust in God, and the unshakable courage that should characterize the knight.
Structure
The Vulgate Lancelot-Grail cycle displays a peculiar technique of interweaving that enables the author (or authors) to bring together a large number of originally independent themes. The story of Lancelot, of Arthur’s kingdom, and the coming of Galahad (Lancelot’s son) are all interconnected by the device of episodes that diverge, subdivide, join, and separate again, so that the work is a kind of interlocking whole, devoid of unity in the modern sense but forming as impregnable a structure as any revolving around a single centre. One of its most important features is its capacity for absorbing contrasting themes, such as the story of Lancelot’s love for Guinevere, Arthur’s queen, and the Quest of the Grail; another feature is its ability to grow through continuations or elaborations of earlier themes insufficiently developed. The great proliferation of prose romances at the end of the Middle Ages would have been impossible without this peculiarity of structure. Unlike any work that is wholly true to the Aristotelian principle of indivisibility and isolation (or organic unity), the prose romances satisfy the first condition, but not the second: internal cohesion goes with a tendency to seek connections with other similar compositions and to absorb an increasingly vast number of new themes. Thus the prose Tristan brings together the stories of Tristan and Iseult, the rise and fall of Arthur’s kingdom, and the Grail Quest. It early gave rise to an offshoot, the romance of Palamède (before 1240), which deals with the older generation of Arthur’s knights. A similar example of “extension backward” is the Perceforest, which associates the beginnings of knighthood in Britain with both Brutus the Trojan (reputedly Aeneas’ grandson and the legendary founder of Britain) and Alexander the Great and makes its hero, Perceforest, live long before the Christian era.
Later developments
The Arthurian prose romances were influential in both Italy and Spain; and this favoured the development in these countries of works best described as romans d’aventure, with their constantly growing interest in tournaments, enchantments, single combat between knights, love intrigues, and rambling adventures. In Italy, early prose compilations of Old French epic material from the Charlemagne cycle were subsequently assimilated to the other great bodies of medieval French narrative fiction and infused with the spirit of Arthurian prose romance. The great Italian heroic and romantic epics, Matteo Boiardo’s Orlando innamorato (1483) and Ludovico Ariosto’s Orlando furioso (1516), are based on this fusion. The serious themes of the Holy Grail and death of Arthur left no mark in Italy. The romantic idealism of Boiardo and Ariosto exploits instead the worldly adventures and the love sentiment of Arthurian prose romance, recounted lightly and with a sophisticated humour.
In Spain the significant development is the appearance, as early as the 14th, or even the 13th, century, of a native prose romance, the Amadís de Gaula. Arthurian in spirit but not in setting and with a freely invented episodic content, this work, in the form given to it by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo in its first known edition of 1508, captured the imagination of the polite society of western Europe by its blend of heroic and incredible feats of arms and tender sentiment and by its exaltation of an idealized and refined concept of chivalry. Quickly translated and adapted into French, Italian, Dutch, and English and followed by numerous sequels and imitations in Spanish and Portuguese, it remained influential for more than four centuries, greatly affecting the outlook and sensibility of western society. Cervantes parodied the fashion inspired by Amadís in Don Quixote (1605); but his admiration for the work itself caused him to introduce many of its features into his own masterpiece, so that the spirit and the character of chivalric romance may be said to have entered into the first great modern novel.
More important still for the development of the novel form was the use made by romance writers of the technique of multiple thematic structure and “interweaving” earlier mentioned. Like the great examples of Romanesque ornamental art, both sculptural and pictorial, the cyclic romances of the late Middle Ages, while showing a strong sense of cohesion, bear no trace whatever of the classical concept of subordination to a single theme: an excellent proof, if proof were needed, of the limited relevance of this concept in literary aesthetics. Even those romances which, like the Amadís and its ancestor, the French prose Lancelot, had one great figure as the centre of action, cannot be said to have progressed in any way toward the notion of the unity of theme.