Both trends found reflection in the symphonies of Antonín Dvořák and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, composers who were products of growing nationalistic tendencies in music. Dvořák continued a distinguished line of Bohemian symphonists stretching back to Johann Stamitz. Conscious of his musical heritage, Dvořák infused his music with folk-derived elements, particularly dances; his last symphony, Symphony No. 9 in E Minor: From the New World (1893; also called the New World Symphony), even incorporates American tunes, but these are almost incidental to the strong Slavonic character of the work. An early devotee of Wagnerian sonorities, Dvořák in his later symphonies returned to the more conservative models and orchestrations of Beethoven and Brahms. It is these later works, through which Dvořák is known today, that have led detractors to call him a “second-rate Brahms.” In fact, Dvořák’s melodic invention, often based on irregular folklike scale forms, and his captivating irregularity of phrase length, surprising variety of orchestration, and impetuous rhythms are entirely personal.

Tchaikovsky, on the other hand, was not comfortable working with preestablished formal models but was at his best in ballets and symphonic poems in which his somewhat extravagant nature found fuller scope for expression. Of his eight symphonies, only Symphony No. 4 in F Minor (1877), Symphony No. 5 in E Minor (1888), and Symphony No. 6 in B minor (1893; Pathétique), actually fourth, sixth, and eighth in order of composition, are well known. These are controversial works, partly because their novel structures are not easily analyzed (or heard) in standard formal ways. Some feel that Tchaikovsky’s freedom and tendency to musical autobiography were inimical to purely abstract musical expression and that understanding of his music depends on knowledge of his state of mind at various times or upon some extramusical imagery or program. This attitude conflicts with an essential determinant of symphonic idiom, which is that the establishment and working-out of tensions in the piece are primarily occasioned by purely musical, formal means and that extramusical data, interesting though they may be, are not directly relevant to apprehension and appreciation of the symphonic process. If Tchaikovsky’s symphonies are to be considered successful as symphonies, they must make purely musical sense—and the three mentioned fulfill this condition.

Tchaikovsky’s kind of musical logic, however, is quite different from that exemplified by the mainline German symphonists. Isolated in his formative years from the influence of Brahms and Wagner, he learned instead by hearing Mozart and Italian opera, characteristics of which he fused with elements of non-European melody, harmony, rhythm, and colour; in this he followed Aleksandr Borodin and other Russians. He strongly favoured the minor mode, no doubt partly because of its inherent instability. This unique confluence of stylistic sources produced a new model for later symphonists, particularly in regard to orchestration and a reevaluation of sonata form based on a fresh conception of tonal harmony.

Mahler

With Gustav Mahler, the central path, if not the culmination, of Viennese symphony was regained. In importance, Mahler’s nine completed symphonies (a 10th was left unfinished at his death) stand equal to any corpus since Beethoven’s, but this was not recognized until the mid-20th century, when his music resonated so strongly with the mood of the time. Nowhere else in music was there found such explicit cynicism, such deliberate distortion of the familiar; by the same token, no symphonist exceeded him in desire for reconciliation. Mahler’s melodies and harmonies were strongly goal-oriented; that his goals were so frequently frustrated or beset with obstacles reflected a truly contemporary outlook for mid-20th-century audiences.

Mahler’s symphonies, like those of Tchaikovsky and Berlioz, suffer from being too often considered solely in the light of extramusical associations. Mahler himself suppressed the programs of his early symphonies and subjected their music to frequent revision. Structurally, the symphonies are entirely logical, even simple, beneath the multitude of themes and wealth of colouristic detail. Mahler was a fastidious and brilliant orchestrator. The seeming superfluity of orchestral resource he called for, especially in the later symphonies, is handled with restraint and sensitivity—Mahler was a conductor as well as a composer and knew well the capabilities of the instruments.

Enormous in timescale, Mahler’s symphonies contain sufficient variety and contrast to maintain interest. Underlying this stylistic multiplicity—including parodies of folk song, waltzes, fanfares, marches, text painting (four symphonies include voices), chorales, borrowings from other composers as well as his own songs—was a leaning toward cyclic structure, with themes or motives shared among movements, as in his song cycles and those of Schubert and Schumann. Mahler also experimented with tonal structure to the extent of combining movements in unrelated keys, so that the ear never tires of a single tonal area. Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, and Symphony No. 7, themselves a huge cycle, show him coming to grips with Classical sonata form, greatly expanded though it is. Unity on a lower level is achieved through extensive counterpoint. These later works show an economy of structure that is foreign to Bruckner, from whom Mahler nevertheless learned much.