Russian drama in the 19th century also got off to a slow start because of strict government censorship, particularly after 1825. This atmosphere was conducive, as in Germany, to the flowering of Romanticism, especially as manifest in patriotic spectacles. Melodrama, Shakespeare, and musical plays were the backbone of Russian repertory until the 1830s. The best known plays of the new realistic school were those of Aleksandr Ostrovsky, Nikolay Gogol, and Ivan Turgenev.

Until 1883 the imperial theatres, under strict government controls, had a monopoly on productions in Russia’s two major cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg. It was not until the monopolies were rescinded that public theatre was able to expand, although the state troupes, such as the Bolshoi in Moscow, continued to offer the most professional productions.

Through the 1850s each theatre had its own few stock settings. The box set had been introduced in the 1830s, but it was to take several decades to become popular. Realism began to dominate scenic design by the 1850s, particularly at the Maly Theatre in Moscow. Historically accurate settings began to appear in the 1860s, when one theatre hired a historian to help the designer of Aleksey Tolstoy’s Death of Ivan the Terrible. Previously, settings had followed the neutral style of the German designer Alfred Roller, whose pupils were the major designers for the state theatres. The unified production techniques of Meiningen were not seen in Russia until the Moscow Art Theatre flourished at the beginning of the 20th century.

British theatre and stage design

In 19th-century Britain the audiences shaped both the theatres and the dramas played within them. The upper class favoured opera, while the working class, whose population in London alone tripled between 1810 and 1850, wanted broadly acted theatre with scenic wonders and machinery. And as the audience grew in number, the Georgian theatre building, which was small and intimate, began to disappear.

In the early 19th century an important designer was William Capon, who utilized pieces set at various raked angles and elaborate back cloths as an alternative to flats and wings. His sets were also large enough not to be overpowered by the larger theatres. One of Capon’s sets, depicting a 14th-century cathedral, was 56 feet wide and 52 feet deep. His sets were historically accurate even though the practice of having several designers work independently on the same production was still in effect.

The productions of John Philip Kemble, the manager of first the Drury Lane and then the Covent Garden, marked the shift from Neoclassicism to Romanticism in English stage design. He valued theatricality over historical accuracy, as the audience demanded an increased use of spectacle with each passing year. As melodrama became more popular, the effects multiplied until, in an 1820 production of King Lear, the storm noises were so realistic that Lear could not be heard. In 1823 Kemble began to reverse this trend and started to use accurate sets and costumes for Shakespeare, and within 15 years historical accuracy was dominant.

Another important contributor to the history of staging was Lucia Vestris, an actress and manager at the Olympic Theatre. She controlled all the elements of a production and combined them into a single, integrated unit. She also was enamoured of spectacle and is credited with introducing the box set on the London stage in 1832, although there is some evidence pointing to its use as early as 1794. In this new set, the sidewalls of rooms were built solidly from front to back so that the actors, instead of entering as usual between side wings set parallel to the footlights, came in through doors set on hinges. She treated the box set realistically, attaching knobs to doors, for example.

By the 1840s, because of political conditions, many theatres were bankrupt. The next 20 years saw a gradual recovery, with few dramatic innovations in design. One important manager of this era was Charles Kean, a pictorial realist, whose first major attempt to ensure accuracy in every production detail was made in 1852 with King John. In the following year, Kean gave the audience a printed list of authorities consulted with regard to the authenticity of each production. In mounting Shakespeare as lavishly as possible while at the same time emphasizing historical accuracy, Kean practically buried his actors in historical costume, settings, and pageantry.

In the second half of the 19th century, burlesque, extravaganza, and musical drama held the largest audience appeal. The music hall also came into prominence, as incidental entertainment was separated from drama. In the period from 1860 to 1880, the theatre continued to expand, and the number of buildings alone increased 50 percent in the first 10 years. The first manager of significance was Charles Fechter, who revived interest in the box set. He also discontinued entrances from the wings, heretofore a standard practice of actors even when the wings represented solid walls. Fechter also used a stage that sank by hydraulic mechanism, later perfected by the Germans, which allowed scenery to be shifted in the basement (see below Development of stage equipment).

The most important management team was that of Sir Squire Bancroft and his wife, Marie Wilton, at the Prince of Wales Theatre. Producing plays by Thomas W. Robertson, they succeeded in melding character and stage business. Spectacle was no longer embellishment but an emphasizing of realistic visual details. The Bancrofts’ productions also finally won general acceptance for the box set; they were as accurate in modern plays as in Shakespeare; and they firmly anchored the acting behind the proscenium arch. Theatre boxes had been replaced by open balconies, which no longer extended to the proscenium wall. This made it possible for the Bancrofts and others to lower the proscenium arch. In 1880 they even extended the arch downward on either side and across the floor of the stage to emphasize the analogy of the picture frame. Modern, realistic interior settings were constantly used, and the acting was keyed to the settings. Although Fechter had employed realistic stage business as early as 1860, the Bancrofts were the first to standardize it and make it a tradition.

The greatest of the actor-managers was Sir Henry Irving, the manager of the Lyceum Theatre from 1878 to 1901. The best known designers of the period, Hawes Craven and Joseph Harker, worked for Irving. He hired historians to advise on the accuracy of productions and enlisted easel painters such as Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema to design scenery for Cymbeline and Coriolanus and Sir Edward Burne-Jones for King Arthur. After Irving saw the Meiningen performances in London in 1881, he modeled his Shakespearean productions on what he had seen. Irving was also the first manager to use the front curtain to hide major scene changes, and he completely darkened the auditorium during performance, as Wagner had done.

The widespread changes in staging methods during the 19th century were possible because of changes in architecture and the development of machinery. The complex scenery of the Victorian theatre required increased flying around the stage, with a complicated counterweight system, and this in turn fostered one of the most popular features of the staging of this period—the flying of actors as well as scenery.

During this period the arrangement of the stage floor also changed to fit the requirements of spectacle. After 1850 the stage floor was usually constructed so that floorboards could be removed for raising and lowering machinery between the joists. Sometimes a vertical panorama would run from overhead through a groove in the floor. The changes in stage floors made possible new scenic effects to meet the audience demand. The traps of the Elizabethan and Georgian eras, for instance, were greatly elaborated. The most famous trap was a “ghost glide,” a sort of dumbwaiter that made actors appear to rise from the earth and glide through space.

As stage lighting improved with the introduction of gaslight, the deficiencies of two-dimensional scenery in terms of realism became increasingly apparent. The taste for verisimilitude led Edward Godwin, the father of Edward Gordon Craig, frequently to commission three-dimensional scenic elements for his productions. Since the groove system of scene-changing was unsuitable for such pieces, he dispensed with it and hired a crew of 135 stage hands. The new trend also rendered the naked stage obsolete, for reasons of gravity. Irving, who was instrumental in accepting new developments in lighting, also introduced black masking pieces at the front of the stage to prevent light spill. Irving’s importance to theatre is comparable to that of Saxe-Meiningen. His emphasis on pictorial realism marks the high point of British theatre before World War I.