Conservative leader

The loyalty of most of the Conservative former ministers to Peel and the death of Bentinck made Disraeli indisputably the leader of the opposition in the Commons. Disraeli spent the next few years trying to extricate his party from what he had come to recognize as the “hopeless cause” of protection. While Disraeli’s policy was sensible, it raised mistrust among his followers, as did his pride in and insistence upon his Jewish ancestry. The party could not, however, do without his talents. His election to Parliament as member for Buckinghamshire in 1847 and his purchase of Hughenden Manor, near High Wycombe, in 1848 fortified his social and political power. His finances, however, remained shaky.

When the Whig government fell in 1852 and the earl of Derby, leader of the Conservative Party, formed a short-lived minority government, Disraeli was chancellor of the Exchequer despite his protest that he knew nothing of finance. His budget in fact brought the government down in 1852, though Disraeli could hardly be blamed. The free-trade majority in the Commons was determined to defeat measures that relieved agriculture, even though the method chosen did not involve protection, yet Disraeli had to bring forward some such proposals to placate his followers. Again, until 1858, the Tories were in opposition. Then Derby again formed a minority government with Disraeli as chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli for some time had felt there was no reason to allow parliamentary reform to be a Whig monopoly, and so he introduced a moderate reform bill in 1859. The bill, however, seemed too obviously designed to help his party, and so it was defeated; the Tories again were out of office and remained so for six years.

In 1865 when the Whig-Liberal leader Lord Russell brought forward a moderate reform bill, a combination of Tory opposition and a revolt against Russell toppled his government. Derby formed his third minority government with Disraeli as chancellor of the Exchequer. Although the initiative for a new Conservative reform bill came from Queen Victoria and Lord Derby, Disraeli introduced it in the Commons and conducted the fight for it with unsurpassed enthusiasm and mastery of parliamentary tactics. He believed the bill should be a sweeping one with certain safeguards, and he was determined that it should be carried by a Conservative government. The Liberals, however, had a majority, and he had to accept their amendments, which removed nearly all the safeguards. The bill that passed doubled the existing electorate and was more democratic than most Conservatives had foreseen. Derby called it “a leap in the dark,” but Disraeli could fairly claim that the bill had gone far toward “realizing the dream of my life and re-establishing Toryism as a national foundation.”

In 1868 when Derby retired from politics, Disraeli became prime minister. “Yes,” he said in reply to a friend’s congratulations, “I have climbed to the top of a greasy pole.” The government was only a caretaker one, for the general election awaited only the completion of a new electoral register, and later in 1868 the Liberals won. Disraeli set a precedent by resigning before Parliament met.

In the following 12-year period, politics changed from the chaotic collection of ill-defined, shifting groups that had been common from the beginning of Disraeli’s career. Now the old politics defined by personalities shifted to an emergence of two parties with coherent policies. The party leaders, Disraeli and William E. Gladstone, were implacable enemies, and they polarized the parties.

At first Disraeli played a comparatively peaceful role. He tried to create a new image for the Conservative Party that he hoped would persuade the new electorate. His seeming apathy disturbed his followers, and his novel Lothair (3 vol., 1870), a political comedy, seemed to some of them undignified.

From 1872, however, Disraeli ran the party with a firm hand. He sharply differentiated Conservative from Liberal policy on several issues: he defended the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the church against what he took to be the threat of radical Liberal policy; he put forth a policy to consolidate the empire, with special emphasis on India; he dwelt on social reform; he enunciated a strong foreign policy, especially against Russia.

In 1872 Disraeli’s wife died of cancer after many months of illness. Her death brought material losses: her house in London and her fortune passed to cousins. At age 68 his health was not good, but he turned implacably to political battle. He began a romantic friendship with two sisters, Lady Bradford and Lady Chesterfield, with whom he corresponded on politics and his personal feelings until his death.

His political fortunes turned when Gladstone’s ministry was defeated in 1873. When Gladstone resigned, Disraeli refused to take office, pleading there was too much uncompleted business to dissolve Parliament, and that a minority government could only damage his party’s prospects. Gladstone reluctantly returned to office, but within a year he dissolved the Parliament himself. Disraeli had been at work on party organization and electoral machinery, and the Conservatives won a resounding victory in 1874.

Second administration

Disraeli gained power too late. He aged rapidly during his second ministry. But he formed a strong cabinet and profited from the friendship of the queen, a political conservative who disliked Gladstone. Disraeli treated her as a human being, whereas Gladstone treated her as a political institution.

In regard to social reform, Disraeli was able at last to show that Tory democracy was more than a slogan. The Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Act made effective slum clearance possible. The Public Health Act of 1875 codified the complicated law on that subject. Equally important were an enlightened series of factory acts (1874, 1878) preventing the exploitation of labour and two trades union acts that clarified the legal position of those bodies.

Disraeli’s imperial and foreign policies were even more in the public eye. His first great success was the acquisition of Suez Canal shares. The extravagant and spendthrift khedive Ismāʾīl Pasha of Egypt owned slightly less than half the Suez Canal Company’s shares and was anxious to sell. An English journalist discovered this fact and told the Foreign Office. Disraeli overrode its recommendation against the purchase and bought the shares using funds provided by the Rothschild family until Parliament could confirm the bargain. The deal was seen as a notable triumph for imperial prestige. Early in 1876 Disraeli brought in a bill conferring on Queen Victoria the title empress of India. There was much opposition, and Disraeli would have gladly postponed it, but the queen insisted. For some time his poor health had made leading the Commons onerous, so he accepted a peerage, taking the titles earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden of Hughenden, and became leader in the House of Lords.

Foreign policy largely occupied him until 1878. The Russian-Turkish conflict had lain dormant since the Crimean War in the 1850s, but Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire revolted against intolerable misrule. Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 and reached the gates of Constantinople early in 1878. Britain feared for the safety of the route to India, but Disraeli correctly judged that a show of force would be enough to bring the exhausted Russian forces to terms. The highly Pan-Slavist Treaty of Stefano forced on Turkey by Russia had to be submitted to a European Congress at Berlin in 1878. Beaconsfield attended and won all concessions he wanted. He returned to London in triumph, declaring that he had brought back “peace with honour.”

At this climax of his career, the queen offered him a dukedom, which he refused, and the Order of the Garter, which he accepted. Thereafter his fortunes waned with disaster in Afghanistan, forces slaughtered in South Africa, agricultural distress, and an industrial slump. The Conservatives were heavily defeated in the general election of 1880. Beaconsfield kept his party leadership and finished Endymion (3 vol., 1880), a mellow, nostalgic political novel viewing his early career. His health failed rapidly, and, a few days after his burial in the family vault at Hughenden, Queen Victoria came to lay a wreath upon the tomb of her favourite prime minister.