Deng Xiaoping

Deng Xiaoping (born August 22, 1904, Guang’an, Sichuan province, China—died February 19, 1997, Beijing) was the most powerful figure in the People’s Republic of China from the late 1970s until his death in 1997. He abandoned many orthodox communist doctrines and attempted to incorporate elements of the free-enterprise system and other reforms into the Chinese economy.

Early life and career until the Cultural Revolution

Deng was the son of a landowner and studied in France (1920–24), where he became active in the communist movement, and in the Soviet Union (1925–26). He then returned to China and later became a leading political and military organizer in the Jiangxi Soviet, an autonomous communist enclave in southwestern China that had been established in 1931 by Mao Zedong. Following the ouster of the communists by Nationalist forces under Chiang Kai-shek in 1934, Deng participated in the arduous Long March (1934–35) of the Chinese communists to a new base in Shaanxi province, northwestern China. From 1937 to 1945 he served as the commissar (political officer) of a division of the communists’ Eighth Route Army, at which time he was appointed a secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Deng also acted as chief commissar of the communists’ Second Field Army during the Chinese Civil War (1947–49). After the communist takeover of China in 1949, he became the regional party leader of southwestern China. In 1952 he was summoned to Beijing and became a vice-premier. Rising rapidly, he became general secretary of the CCP in 1954 and a member of the ruling Political Bureau in 1955.

From the mid-1950s Deng was a major policy maker in both foreign and domestic affairs. He became closely allied with pragmatist leaders such as Liu Shaoqi, who stressed the use of material incentives and the formation of skilled technical and managerial elites in China’s quest for economic development. Deng thus came into increasing conflict with Mao, who stressed egalitarian policies and revolutionary enthusiasm as the key to economic growth, in opposition to Deng’s emphasis on individual self-interest.

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Deng was attacked during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) by radical supporters of Mao. He was stripped of his high party and government posts sometime in the years 1967–69, after which he disappeared from public view. In 1973, however, Deng was reinstated under the sponsorship of Premier Zhou Enlai and made deputy premier, and in 1975 he became vice-chairman of the party’s Central Committee, a member of its Political Bureau (Politburo), and chief of the general staff. As effective head of the government during the months preceding the death of Zhou, he was widely considered the likely successor to Zhou. However, after Zhou’s death in January 1976, the Gang of Four—the pro-Mao radical elite during the Cultural Revolution—managed to purge Deng from the leadership once again. It was not until Mao’s death in September 1976 and the consequent fall from power of the Gang of Four that Deng was rehabilitated, this time with the assent of Hua Guofeng, Mao’s chosen successor to the leadership of China.

Rise to preeminence

By July 1977 Deng had returned to his high posts. He soon embarked on a struggle with Hua for control of the party and government. Deng’s superior political skills and broad base of support soon led Hua to surrender the premiership and the chairmanship to protégés of Deng in 1980–81. Zhao Ziyang became premier of the government, and Hu Yaobang became general secretary of the CCP; both men looked to Deng for guidance.

From that point on, Deng proceeded to carry out his own policies for the economic development of China. Operating through consensus, compromise, and persuasion, Deng engineered important reforms in virtually all aspects of China’s political, economic, and social life. His most important social reform was the institution of the world’s most rigorous family-planning program—the one-child policy—in order to control China’s burgeoning population. He instituted decentralized economic management and rational and flexible long-term planning to achieve efficient and controlled economic growth. China’s peasant farmers were given individual control over and responsibility for their production and profits, a policy that resulted in greatly increased agricultural production within a few years of its initiation in 1981. Deng stressed individual responsibility in the making of economic decisions, material incentives as the reward for industry and initiative, and the formation of cadres of skilled, well-educated technicians and managers to spearhead China’s development. He freed many industrial enterprises from the control and supervision of the central government and gave factory managers the authority to determine production levels and to pursue profits for their enterprises. In foreign affairs, Deng strengthened China’s trade and cultural ties with the West and opened up Chinese enterprises to foreign investment.

Deng eschewed the most conspicuous leadership posts in the party and government. But he was a member of the powerful Standing Committee of the Political Bureau, and he retained control of the armed forces by virtue of his being chairman of the CCP’s Central Military Commission. He was also a vice-chairman of the CCP. Owing both to his posts and to the weight and authority of his voice within the party, he remained China’s chief policy maker throughout the 1980s. In 1987 Deng stepped down from the CCP’s Central Committee, thereby relinquishing his seat on the Political Bureau and its dominant Standing Committee. By so doing he compelled similar retirements by many aged party leaders who had remained opposed or resistant to his reforms.

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Deng faced a critical test of his leadership in April–June 1989. Zhao had replaced the too-liberal Hu as general secretary of the CCP in 1987. Hu’s death in April 1989 sparked a series of student demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in Beijing demanding greater political freedom and a more democratic government. After some hesitation, Deng supported those in the CCP leadership who favoured the use of force to suppress the protesters, and in June the army crushed the demonstrations in the Tiananmen Square Incident with considerable loss of life. Zhao was replaced as party leader by the more authoritarian Jiang Zemin, to whom Deng yielded his chairmanship of the Military Commission in 1989. By then Deng lacked any formal post in the communist leadership, but he still retained ultimate authority in the party. Although his direct involvement in government declined in the 1990s, he retained his influence until his death in 1997 from complications of Parkinson disease and a lung infection. Per Deng’s wishes, some of his organs were donated, his body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered at sea.

Legacy

Deng restored China to domestic stability and economic growth after the disastrous excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Under his leadership, China acquired a rapidly growing economy, rising standards of living, considerably expanded personal and cultural freedoms, and growing ties to the world economy. Deng also left in place a mildly authoritarian government that remained committed to the CCP’s one-party rule even while it relied on free-market mechanisms to transform China into a developed country.