Later life of Hermann von Helmholtz

Helmholtz’s work in electricity and magnetism revealed his conviction that classical mechanics was probably the best mode of scientific reasoning. He was one of the first German scientists to appreciate the work in electrodynamics of the British scientists Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday had appeared to strike at the foundation of Newtonian physics by his unorthodox rejection of action at a distance, that is, action between two bodies in space without alteration of the medium between them. Maxwell, however, by interpreting the mathematics of Faraday’s laws, showed there was no contradiction between Newtonian physics and classical mechanics. Helmholtz further developed the mathematics of electrodynamics. He spent his last years unsuccessfully trying to reduce all of electrodynamics to a minimum set of mathematical principles, an attempt in which he had to rely increasingly on the mechanical properties of the ether thought to pervade all space.

Helmholtz was not in complete accord with Maxwell on the nature of electricity. Unlike Maxwell, Helmholtz was interested in and had studied electrochemistry, particularly the nature of the galvanic cell. Maxwell would have made the electric current solely the result of the polarization of the ether, or of whatever medium the current flowed through. Helmholtz, on the other hand, was fully conversant with Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, which related the amount of current that passed through an electrochemical cell to the equivalent weights of the elements deposited at the poles. In 1881, in a lecture delivered in Faraday’s honour in London, Helmholtz argued that if scientists accepted the existence of chemical atoms, as most chemists of the time did, then Faraday’s laws necessarily implied the particulate nature of electricity. This hypothetical particle was soon christened the electron and, ironically, the physics of its existence helped to falsify Helmholtz’s theories of electrodynamics.

Though he was unsuccessful in his goal to formulate electrodynamics, Helmholtz was almost able to deduce all electromagnetic effects from the ether’s supposed properties. The discovery of radio waves by his pupil Heinrich Hertz in 1888 was viewed as the experimental confirmation of the theories of Faraday, Maxwell, and Helmholtz. The special and general theories of relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein, destroyed Helmholtz’s theories by eliminating the ether.

Helmholtz’s early work on sound and music had led him to the study of wave motion. His work on the conservation of energy familiarized him with the problems of energy transfer. These two areas coalesced in his later years in his studies of meteorology, but the phenomena were so complex that he could do little more than point the way to future areas of research.

Helmholtz’s work was the end product of the development of classical mechanics. He pushed it as far as it could go. When Helmholtz died, the world of physics was poised on the brink of revolution. The discovery of X-rays, radioactivity, and relativity led to a new kind of physics in which Helmholtz’s achievements, although impressive, had little to offer the new generation.