Origins of the debate

The earliest criticism of orthodox dogma came in the age of the Reformation, not from the reformers but from the “left wing of the Reformation,” from Michael Servetus (1511?–53) and the Socinians. That criticism was directed against the presence of nonbiblical concepts and terms in the dogma, and it was intent upon safeguarding the true humanity of Jesus as a moral example. There were many inconsistencies in that criticism, such as the willingness of Servetus to call Jesus “Son of God” and the Socinian custom of addressing prayer and worship to him. But it illustrates the tendency, which became more evident in the Enlightenment, to use the Reformation protest against Catholicism as a basis for a protest against orthodox dogma as well. Although that tendency did not gain much support in the 16th century because of the orthodoxy of the reformers, later criticism of orthodox Christology was able to wield the “Protestant principle” against the dogma of the two natures on the grounds that this was a consistent application of what the reformers had done. Among the ranks of the Protestant laity, the hymnody and the catechetical instruction of the Protestant churches assured continuing support for the orthodox dogma. Indeed, the doctrine of the Atonement by the vicarious satisfaction of Christ’s death has seldom been expressed as amply as it was in the hymns and catechisms of both the Lutheran and the Reformed churches. During the period of Pietism in the Protestant churches, that loyalty to orthodox teaching was combined with a growing emphasis upon the humanity of Jesus, also expressed in the hymnody of the time.

When theologians began to criticize orthodox ideas of the person and work of Christ, therefore, they met with opposition from the common people. Albert Schweitzer dates the development of a critical attitude from the work of H.S. Reimarus (1694–1768), but Reimarus was representative of the way the Enlightenment treated the traditional view of Jesus. The books of the Bible were to be studied just as other books are, and the life of Jesus was to be drawn from them by critically sifting and weighing the evidence of the Gospels. The Enlightenment thus initiated the modern interest in the life of Jesus, with its detailed attention to the problem of the relative credibility of the Gospel records. It has been suggested by some historians that the principal target of Enlightenment criticism was not the dogma of the two natures but the doctrine of the vicarious Atonement. The leaders of Enlightenment thought did not make a sudden break with traditional ideas but gave up belief in miracles, the Virgin Birth, the Resurrection, and the Second Advent only gradually. Their principal importance for the history of the doctrine of Christ consists in the fact that they made the historical study of the sources for the life of Jesus an indispensable element of any Christology.

The 19th century

Although the Enlightenment of the 18th century was the beginning of the break with orthodox teachings about Jesus Christ, it was only in the 19th century that the break attracted wide support among theologians and scholars in many parts of Christendom—even, for a while, among the modernists of the Roman Catholic Church. Two works of the 19th century were especially influential in their rejection of orthodox Christology: one was the Life of Jesus, first published in 1835 by David Friedrich Strauss, and the other, bearing the same title, was first published by Ernest Renan in 1863. Strauss’s work paid more attention to the growth of Christian ideas—he called them “myths”—about Jesus as the basis for the picture presented in the Gospels, while Renan attempted to account for Jesus’ career by a study of his inner psychological life in relation to his environment. Both works achieved wide circulation and were translated into other languages, including English. They took up the Enlightenment contention that the sources for the life of Jesus were to be studied as other sources are, and what they constructed on the basis of the sources was a type of biography in the modern sense of the word. In addition to Strauss and Renan, the 19th century saw the publication of a plethora of books about the life and teachings of Jesus. Each new hypothesis regarding the problem of the Synoptic Gospels implied a reconstruction of the life and message of Jesus.

The fundamental assumption for most of that work on the life and teachings of Jesus was a distinction between the “Jesus of history” and the “Christ of faith.” Another favorite way of putting the distinction was to speak of the religion “of” Jesus in antithesis to the religion “about” Jesus. This implied that Jesus was a human being like other human beings but with a heightened awareness of the presence and power of God. Then the dogma of the church had mistaken that awareness for a metaphysical statement that Jesus was the Son of God and had thus distorted the original simplicity of his message. Some critics went so far as to question the very historicity of Jesus, but even those who did not go that far questioned the historicity of some of the sayings and deeds attributed to Jesus in the Gospels.

In part that effort grew out of the general concern of 19th-century scholarship with the problem of history, but it also reflected the religious and ethical assumptions of the theologians. Many of them were influenced by the moral theories of Kant in their estimate of what was permanent about the teachings of Jesus and by the historical theories of Hegel in the way they related the original message of Jesus to the Christian interpretations of that message by later generations of Christians. The ideas of evolution and of natural causality associated with the science of the 19th century also played a part through the naturalistic explanations of the biblical miracles. And the historians of dogma, climaxing in Adolf von Harnack (1851–1931), used their demonstration of the dependence of ancient Christology upon non-Christian sources for its concepts and terminology to reinforce their claim that Christianity had to get back from the Christ of dogma to the “essence of Christianity” in the teachings of Jesus about the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.

The 20th century and beyond

At the beginning of the 20th century the most-influential authorities on the New Testament were engaged in the quest for the essence of Christianity and for the Jesus of history. But that quest led in the early decades of the 20th century to a revolutionary conclusion regarding the teachings of Jesus—namely, that he had expected the end of the age to come shortly after his death and that his teachings as laid down in the Gospels were an “interim ethic,” intended for the messianic community in the brief span of time still remaining before the end. The effort to apply those teachings in modern life was criticized as a dangerous modernization. This thesis of the “consistent eschatology” in Jesus’ message was espoused by Johannes von Weiss (1863–1914) and gained wide circulation through the writings of Albert Schweitzer.

The years surrounding World War I also saw the development of a new theory regarding the composition of the Gospels. Because of its origin, that theory is usually called “form criticism” (German Formgeschichte). It stressed the forms of the Gospel narratives—parables, sayings, miracle stories, Passion accounts, and so on—as an indication of the oral tradition in the Christian community out of which the narratives came. Whereas the attention of earlier scholars had been concentrated on the authenticity of Jesus’ teachings as transmitted in the Gospels, this new theory was less confident of being able to separate the authentic from the later elements in the Gospel records, though various proponents of it did suggest criteria by which such a separation might be guided. The studies of form criticism made a life of Jesus in the old biographical sense impossible, just as consistent eschatology had declared impossible the codification of a universal ethic from the teachings of Jesus. Some adherents of form criticism espoused an extreme skepticism regarding any historical knowledge of Jesus’ life at all, but the work of scholars such as Martin Dibelius and even Rudolf Bultmann showed that such skepticism was not warranted by the conclusions of this study.

Influenced by those trends in New Testament study, Protestant theology by the middle of the 20th century was engaged in a reinterpretation of the Christology of the early church. Some Protestant churches continued to repeat the formulas of ancient dogma, but even there the critical study of the New Testament documents was beginning to call those formulas into question. The struggles of the evangelical churches in Germany under Adolf Hitler caused some theologians to realize anew the power of the ancient dogma of the person of Christ to sustain faith, and some of them were inclined to treat the dogma with less severity. But even they acknowledged that the formulation of that dogma in static categories of person, essence, and nature was inadequate to the biblical emphasis upon actions and events rather than upon states of being. Karl Barth for the Reformed tradition, Lionel Thornton for the Anglican tradition, and Karl Heim for the Lutheran tradition were instances of theologians trying to reinterpret classical Christology. While yielding nothing of their loyalty to the dogma of the church, Roman Catholic theologians like Karl Adam were also endeavoring to state that dogma in a form that was meaningful to modern men and women.

The doctrine of the work of Christ was receiving less attention than the doctrine of Christ’s person. In much of Protestantism, the concentration of the 19th century upon the teachings of Jesus had made it difficult to speak of more than the prophetic office. The priestly office received least attention of all. Therefore, despite the support accorded to efforts like that of Gustaf Aulén to reinterpret the metaphor of the Atonement as Christ’s victory over his enemies, Protestant theology in the middle of the 20th century was still searching for a doctrine of the Atonement to match its newly won insights into the doctrine of the person of Christ. By the end of the 20th century, theologians such as Rita Nakashima Brock were rejecting the doctrine of the Atonement altogether. Some scholars, such as those of the Jesus Seminar (e.g., John Dominic Crossan and Marcus Borg), rejected most of the traditional portrayals of Jesus, focusing more on the social dimensions of Jesus’ ministry.

In a curious way, therefore, the figure of Jesus Christ has become both a unitive and divisive element in Christendom. All Christians are united in their loyalty to him, even though they express their loyalty in a variety of doctrinal and liturgical ways. But doctrine and liturgy also divide Christian communions from one another. It has not been the official statements about Christ that have differed widely among most communions. What has become a sharp point of division is the amount of historical and critical inquiry that is permitted where the person of Christ is involved. Despite their official statements and confessions, most Protestant denominations had indicated by the second half of the 20th century that they would tolerate such inquiry, differ though they did in prescribing how far it would be permitted to go. On the other hand, the exclusion of modernism by the Roman Catholic Church in 1907–10 drew definite limits beyond which the theological use of the methods of critical inquiry was heretical. Within those limits, however, Roman Catholic biblical scholars were engaging in considerable critical literary study, at the same time that critical Protestant theologians were becoming more sympathetic to traditional Christological formulas.