Unification of China

Kublai’s achievement was to reestablish the unity of China, which had been divided since the end of the Tang dynasty (618–907). His accomplishment was that much greater because he was a barbarian (in Chinese eyes) as well as a nomadic conqueror. Even in Chinese official historiography, however, the Mongol Kublai is treated with respect. As early as 1260 he instituted a reign period in the Chinese manner to date his reign, and in 1271, eight years before the disintegration of the Nan Song, he proclaimed his own dynasty under the title of Da Yuan, or “Great Origin.” He never resided at Karakorum, Ögödei’s short-lived capital, but set up his own capital at what is now Beijing, a city known in his time as Dadu, the “Great Capital.”

The final conquest of the Nan Song took several years. Kublai might well have been content to rule northern China and to leave the Song nominally in control of southern China, but the Song’s detention and ill treatment of envoys he had sent convinced him that the declining regime in the south must be dealt with decisively. Military operations opened once again in 1267. The Song emperor Duzong was apparently badly served by his last ministers, who are said to have kept him misinformed of the true situation, whereas many Song commanders went over voluntarily to the Mongols. In 1276 Kublai’s general Bayan captured the child Song emperor of the day, but loyalists in the south delayed the inevitable end until 1279.

With all of China in Mongol hands, the Mongol conquests in the south and east had reached their effective limit. Kublai, however, seeking to restore China’s prestige, engaged in a series of costly and troublesome wars that brought little return. At various times tribute was demanded of the peripheral kingdoms: from Myanmar (Burma), from Annam and Champa in mainland Southeast Asia, from Java (now in Indonesia), and from Japan. The Mongol armies suffered some disastrous defeats in those campaigns. In particular, invasion fleets sent to Japan in 1274 and 1281 were virtually annihilated, though their loss was as much due to storms (the fabled Japanese kamikaze typhoons in those years) as to Japanese resistance.

Kublai was never entirely discouraged by the indifferent results of those colonial wars nor by their expense, and they were brought to an end only under his successor, Temür. Marco Polo suggests that Kublai wished to annex Japan simply because he was excited by reports of its great wealth. It seems, however, that his colonial wars were fought mainly with a political objective—to establish China once more as the centre of the world.

Social and administrative policy

The Mongols, by themselves, were incapable of ruling China, and, though at the lower levels they made use of Chinese civil servants, posts of importance were allotted to foreigners. Of those Marco Polo is a familiar example. Kublai instituted a “nationalities policy” under which the population of China was divided into four categories. At the top were the Mongols (menggu ren), forming a privileged military caste of a few hundred thousand. They were exempt from taxation and lived at the expense of the Chinese peasantry who worked the great estates allocated for the Mongolians’ upkeep.

The foreign auxiliaries of the Mongols, natives for the most part of Central Asia, formed the second group, the semuren, persons with special status. That class furnished the higher officialdom. In addition, its members, with their worldwide contacts and their privileged status, formed a new breed of merchants and speculators. Like the Mongols, they were exempt from taxation and enjoyed preferential use of the official post roads and services.

The bulk of the population belonged to the third and fourth classes, the hanren, or northern Chinese, and the nanren, or southern Chinese—the latter group also referred to pejoratively as manzi (“barbarians”)—who lived in what had been Nan Song China. The expenses of state and the support of the privileged bore heavily on those two classes. Kublai’s continuing wars produced a heavy and useless burden, as did his showy and extravagant building operations at Dadu. Peasants were brought in as labourers, to the neglect of their farms. Food supplies in the north were inadequate for the new labour force and the unproductive Mongols, and large quantities had to be brought by sea and, when the sea routes proved insecure, along the Grand Canal. The repair and extension of the canal also demanded much labour.

Kublai, in common with other Mongol rulers, was much preoccupied with religion. His reign was a time of toleration for rival religions and of economic privilege for the favoured religions. Clerics and their communities were exempted from taxation, and Buddhist temples especially were granted generous donations of land and of peasants for their upkeep. The arrogance of the many Tibetan lamas, who enjoyed a special status in Yuan China, was particularly detested by the Chinese.

Such a discriminatory social policy was eventually bound to arouse strong resentment. Moreover, it was only on the surface that Kublai’s China, with its intense commercial activity, was economically strong and wealthy. Trade was mainly carried on in the interests of a privileged foreign merchant class, not those of the community at large. The common people of China were becoming progressively poorer. The old examination system, which admitted to the civil service only men with a proper knowledge of Confucian philosophy, had lapsed, and customary restraints on absolutism and arbitrary rule, such as would have been imposed by the censorate (a body that scrutinized the conduct of officials) and a professional public service, were lacking.

The Chinese literati were excluded from public office and responsibility. As a result, adventurers could attain high positions, and even an emperor of Kublai’s unique ability remained for years on end ignorant of, and unable to check, the depredations of his dishonest foreign financial advisers. The extravagant policies that Kublai had countenanced and the financial ineptitude of later Mongol emperors provoked, in the 14th century, the economically motivated uprisings that brought the dynasty down.

Kublai is celebrated—mainly because of Marco Polo’s account—for his use of paper money. Paper money had, however, been issued in China under the Song, and Kublai’s innovation was merely to make it the sole medium of exchange. Toward the end of the dynasty, an incapable financial administration stimulated inflation by the overissue of paper money, but in Kublai’s time the use of banknotes was essential. The supply of copper was too small to form a metal currency in a period of expanding trade, and in any case large quantities were diverted to the temples to be made into statues and other cult objects.