Tyranny and fall of Richard II

The exalted notions that Richard articulated in Ireland formed the background for his dramatic reassertion of royal authority two years later in England. In July 1397 Richard ordered the arrest of the senior Appellants—Gloucester, Arundel, and Warwick. The first two were imprisoned and executed, and the last exiled to the Isle of Man. In letters that he sent to foreign rulers shortly afterward, Richard justified his actions in terms of his political beliefs. He said that the lords’ earlier rebellion and disobedience called for “an avenging punishment” that would “thresh the traitors out even to the husk,” and that the destruction and ruin of their persons would bring to his subjects a “peace” that would last forever. By peace, Richard meant not only the absence of war but also “unity,” the foundation of a strong realm.

But Richard’s peace was illusory. In reality, his entourage was riddled with factions and feuds. In January 1398 a quarrel broke out between Henry Bolingbroke, Lancaster’s son, and the king’s former ally, Thomas Mowbray (duke of Norfolk and earl of Nottingham). Mowbray apparently warned Bolingbroke of a plot by some of the king’s intimates to destroy the Lancastrian inheritance. Bolingbroke reported the conversation to the king, who ordered that the conflict created by this betrayal of confidence be settled by a trial by combat. A day was set for the adversaries to meet, but at the last moment Richard, fearful of Bolingbroke’s possible victory, cancelled the engagement and gave judgment himself. Bolingbroke was sentenced to exile for 10 years, and Mowbray for life.

In February 1399 Lancaster died, and Richard took possession of his inheritance. Three months later, his coffers replenished with Lancastrian gold, Richard set off again for Ireland; the settlement of 1395 was in danger of unraveling, and his personal attention was required. While he was away, his cousin Bolingbroke returned from exile. Landing in Yorkshire, the duke met the earl of Northumberland and quickly won his support. Then he began a triumphant march across central and western England. Richard was slow to return from Ireland. By the time he reached Wales in mid-July, popular support for him had melted away, and in the meantime York, “the keeper of the realm,” had ceased resistance. Around August 15 Richard surrendered to Northumberland at Conway. Northumberland took him under guard to Bolingbroke at Flint; from there he was taken to Chester and later to London.

In September Bolingbroke summoned a Parliament in his adversary’s name, and a committee was appointed to draft articles of deposition. On September 29, after a series of meetings in the Tower of London, Richard was induced to lay aside his crown. On the following day the king’s statement of abdication was read in Parliament and approved. The assembly also assented to the articles of deposition, because abdication alone, as an act that could be rescinded, was insufficient. When the proceedings were concluded, Richard was taken from the Tower to Leeds and later to Pontefract. In January 1400 a group of his former courtiers, led by the earl of Salisbury, plotted to restore him to the throne. Their rebellion was crushed, but it convinced Bolingbroke, by now Henry IV, that he could no longer allow Richard to live. Sometime in February the former king was put to death; by what means is not known. After a requiem mass at St. Paul’s Cathedral, the body was obscurely interred at King’s Langley, England. Early in Henry V’s reign Richard was given honourable burial in the tomb that he had made for himself in Westminster Abbey.

Character and ideas

Richard articulated a radically new vision of kingship in England, rejecting the tradition of warrior monarchy epitomized by Edward III. Richard’s kingship owed much to the ideas of the 13th-century writer Giles of Rome. Giles argued that all personal honour and privilege flowed from the king, whom the subjects should obey. Richard said the same about honour in his patents of ennoblement, and he and his ministers likewise emphasized the need for obedience. Giles’s influence on the king overlapped with that of Roman law. In the deposition articles, the king was alleged to have cited the Roman legal principle that “the laws were in his mouth…or alternatively in his breast.”

However, Richard’s political outlook also owed much to his religion. He was a man of deep piety who saw government as a burden placed on him by God. He believed it his duty to ensure the acceptability of his government to God. In order to win such acceptability, he took firm action against the English heresy of Lollardy. Indeed, the epitaph on his tomb expressed the pride that he took in “suppressing the heretics and scattering their friends.” He was devoted to the saints and delighted in reports of miracles, because they strengthened his faith. He showed particular devotion to the cult of St. Edward the Confessor, whose reputation for “peace” validated Richard’s own search for “peace.” He also was strongly devoted to two other saints, St. Edmund and St. John the Baptist. All three saints are shown as his sponsors on that icon of Ricardian kingship, the Wilton Diptych.

Richard was a tall, vigorous man, handsome with fair hair, highly self-conscious, and much preoccupied with his self-image. There are indications that he had the characteristics of a narcissistic personality. The very public way in which he achieved his ends in and after 1397 can best be understood in terms of the narcissist’s craving for recognition and outward success.