Greco-Persian Wars

Greco-Persian Wars, (492–449 bce), series of wars fought by Greek states and Persia over a period of almost half a century. The fighting was most intense during two invasions that Persia launched against mainland Greece between 490 and 479. Although the Persian empire was at the peak of its strength, the collective defense mounted by the Greeks overcame seemingly impossible odds and even succeeded in liberating Greek city-states on the fringe of Persia itself. The Greek triumph ensured the survival of Greek culture and political structures long after the demise of the Persian empire.

Establishment and expansion of the Achaemenian Empire (559–500 bce)

In 559 bce the Persian king Cyrus II founded the Achaemenian dynasty, and he would spend the rest of his life extending his rule, which ultimately reached from the Indus River valley to the Aegean Sea. After the Persians defeated Croesus of Lydia about 546, the small Greek states on the Asian coast were reduced piecemeal, and Sparta, the strongest state on the Greek mainland, did nothing more than lodge diplomatic protests.

Darius, who reigned from 522 to 486, consolidated and extended the Persian empire. From his capital, far inland at Susa, the royal roads led to about 20 provinces, called satrapies, which were governed by satraps possessing full military and civil powers. The conquered peoples owed tribute and military service to the king. So long as they fulfilled their obligations, they were generously treated—permitted to practice their own religion and manage their internal affairs—but disobedience was harshly punished by massacre or deportation. The imperial army consisted of archers and sparabra (“shield bearers”), a type of light infantry armed with a spear and wicker shield; Median and Persian cavalry; and the best troops of the subject peoples. The navy was drawn from the Greek states of Asia Minor and from Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. Supreme authority in war and peace was vested in the Persian monarch, whose absolute powers were tempered only by the custom of consulting his Persian officials. Darius was described as “the great king, king of kings, king of the countries possessing all kinds of peoples, king of this great earth far and wide.” As the vicegerent of the Persian god, Ahura Mazdā, Darius laid claim to world rule.

In 514 Darius prepared to conquer Europe. Having made a reconnaissance by sea of Greece and Scythia, he decided to attack Scythia first and instructed a Samian engineer to build a pontoon bridge across the Bosporus. The imperial army overran eastern Thrace and crossed the Danube on a pontoon bridge that was constructed by Greek contingents within the Persian navy. The Persians then advanced far into what is now Ukraine, probably in 513. The Scythians retreated until Darius outran his lines of supply and then harassed his forces when he turned back. The Greek commanders in the Persian navy, although asked by the Scythians to cut the bridge over the Danube, remained loyal to Darius, but some Greek states bordering the Bosporus and the Hellespont rose in rebellion at the news of his discomfiture. These operations convinced Darius that a strong bridgehead in Europe was necessary. His generals punished the Greek rebels, established a satrapy in southern Thrace that cut off the Scythians from their Spartan allies, and received the submission of the king of Macedonia. Meanwhile, the Persian navy reduced Lemnos and Imbros (Gökçeada), and a Persian force was ready in 500 to attack Naxos, the strongest island in the Cyclades. This expedition was probably intended to pave the way for an invasion of Greece.