history of Germany

Table of Contents

Introduction
Ancient history
- Coexistence with Rome to 350 ce
- The migration period
Merovingians and Carolingians
- Merovingian Germany
- The rise of the Carolingians and Boniface
- Charlemagne
- The emergence of Germany
  - The kingdom of Louis the German
  - Rise of the duchies
Germany from 911 to 1250
- The 10th and 11th centuries
  - Conrad I
  - The accession of the Saxons
  - The eastern policy of the Saxons
  - Dukes, counts, and advocates
  - The promotion of the German church
  - The Ottonian conquest of Italy and the imperial crown
  - The Salians, the papacy, and the princes, 1024–1125
    - Papal reform and the German church
    - The discontent of the lay princes
    - The civil war against Henry IV
    - Henry V
- Germany and the Hohenstaufen, 1125–1250
  - Dynastic competition, 1125–52
  - Colonization of the east
  - Hohenstaufen policy in Italy
  - The fall of Henry the Lion
  - Hohenstaufen cooperation and conflict with the papacy, 1152–1215
  - Frederick II and the princes
  - The empire after the Hohenstaufen catastrophe
Germany from 1250 to 1493
- 1250 to 1378
  - The extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty
  - The Great Interregnum
  - The rise of the Habsburgs and Luxembourgs
    - Rudolf of Habsburg
    - Adolf of Nassau
    - Albert I of Habsburg
    - Henry VII of Luxembourg
  - The growth of territorialism under the princes
  - Constitutional conflicts in the 14th century
    - Charles IV and the Golden Bull
    - Decline of the German monarchy
  - The continued ascendancy of the princes
    - Southern Germany
    - Central Germany
    - Northern Germany
    - Eastern Germany
    - Continued dispersement of territory
- 1378 to 1493
  - Internal strife among cities and princes
    - Wenceslas
    - Rupert
    - Sigismund
  - The Hussite controversy
    - Jan Hus
    - The Hussite wars
  - The Habsburgs and the imperial office
    - Albert II
    - Frederick III
  - Developments in the individual states to about 1500
    - The princes and the Landstände
    - The growth of central governments
  - German society, economy, and culture in the 14th and 15th centuries
    - Transformation of rural life
    - The nobility
    - Urban life
    - The decline of the church
    - Trade and industry
    - Cultural life
Germany from 1493 to c. 1760
- Reform and Reformation, 1493–1555
  - The empire in 1493
  - Imperial reform
  - The Reformation
  - Imperial election of 1519 and the Diet of Worms
  - The revolution of 1525
  - Lutheran church organization and confessionalization
  - Religious war and the Peace of Augsburg
- The confessional age, 1555–1648
  - German society in the later 1500s
  - Religion and politics, 1555–1618
  - The Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia
- Territorial states in the age of absolutism
  - The empire after Westphalia
  - The consolidation of Brandenburg-Prussia and Austria
  - The age of Louis XIV
  - The contest between Prussia and Austria
Germany from c. 1760 to 1815
- Further rise of Prussia and the Hohenzollerns
- The cultural scene
- Enlightened reform and benevolent despotism
- The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era
  - End of the Holy Roman Empire
  - Period of French hegemony in Germany
  - The Wars of Liberation
- Results of the Congress of Vienna
The age of Metternich and the era of unification, 1815–71
- Reform and reaction
- Evolution of parties and ideologies
- Economic changes and the Zollverein
- The revolutions of 1848–49
- The 1850s: years of political reaction and economic growth
- The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck
  - The defeat of Austria
  - Bismarck’s national policies: the restriction of liberalism
  - Franco-German conflict and the new German Reich
Germany from 1871 to 1918
- The German Empire, 1871–1914
  - Domestic concerns
  - The economy, 1870–90
  - Foreign policy, 1870–90
  - Politics, 1890–1914
  - The economy, 1890–1914
  - Foreign policy, 1890–1914
- World War I
Germany from 1918 to 1945
- The rise and fall of the Weimar Republic, 1918–33
  - Defeat of revolutionaries, 1918–19
  - The Treaty of Versailles
  - The Weimar constitution
  - Years of crisis, 1920–23
  - The Weimar Renaissance
  - Years of economic and political stabilization
  - The end of the republic
- The Third Reich, 1933–45
  - The Nazi revolution
  - The totalitarian state
  - Foreign policy
  - World War II
The era of partition
- Allied occupation and the formation of the two Germanys, 1945–49
  - Formation of the Federal Republic of Germany
  - Formation of the German Democratic Republic
- Political consolidation and economic growth, 1949–69
- Ostpolitik and reconciliation, 1969–89
The reunification of Germany
- Helmut Kohl and the struggles of reunification
- Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005)
- The Merkel administration (2005–21)
- The chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021– )

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