Geological surveys have revealed an array of valuable mineral deposits in Bhutan, but mining remains a slow-growing portion of the economy. Calcium carbide—the country’s main mineral export—limestone, dolomite, gypsum, coal, marble, quartzite, and talc are the primary products of the country’s mining activities. Other minerals, extracted in smaller quantities, include slate, beryl, pyrite, and various gemstones, as well as a number of metals, such as lead, copper, tin, iron, and silver.

The vast majority of Bhutan’s energy is provided by hydroelectric power stations. The Chhukha Hydel project, which harnesses the waters of the Raidak River, was historically one of the largest single investments undertaken in Bhutan, and it represented a major step toward exploiting the country’s huge hydroelectric potential. The sale of surplus energy from the Chhukha project to India ultimately financed the venture. Since the completion of the Chhukha project in the late 1980s, several other hydroelectric dams and generators were put into operation, and by the early 21st century electricity had become the country’s top export.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing, which began in Bhutan about 1970, has grown considerably, with four industries—producing cement, chemicals, wood products, and processed foods—arising as pillars of the sector by the early 21st century. The rapid expansion of these and other industries in both the public and private sectors is attributable largely to the availability of sufficient power (and proceeds) from the country’s hydroelectric projects. Nearly all Bhutan’s manufacturing centres are located in the south, close to the Indian border. Phuntsholing, with nearly half of Bhutan’s manufacturing activity, is the largest industrial centre.

Finance

Until the 1960s Bhutan did not have a currency; its people bartered for the goods they could not produce themselves. Now the country has a cash economy, with the Royal Monetary Authority issuing the ngultrum, the national currency. The country also has a few commercial banks, most of which are jointly owned (in various combinations) by the government of Bhutan, the government of India, and private interests. A development bank that specializes in industrial and agricultural loans was established in 1988. A stock exchange, open to citizens of Bhutan only, was founded in Thimphu in 1993.

Trade

Because Bhutan is landlocked, trade and transit arrangements with India play a critical role in its economic life. Free trade with India prevails, and India is the source of the great majority of Bhutan’s imports, which include machinery, transport equipment, base and fabricated metals, petroleum products, vegetables and other food, and textiles. India also is the recipient of the bulk of Bhutan’s exports. Electricity is the country’s principal export, followed by copper wire and cable, calcium carbide, metal alloys, cement, and polyester yarn. Cardamom and other spices, gypsum, timber, and handicrafts also are exported, albeit on a smaller scale. Secondary trading partners, for the most part in Asia, have included Japan, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, and Singapore. Bhutan is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) and participates in the South Asian Free Trade Agreement along with the other SAARC signatories.

Services

Limited tourism, closely controlled by the government, began to develop in Bhutan in the mid-1970s. In the early 1990s, however, the tourism industry was privatized, and since that time the volume of tourists, tourist facilities, and tourist income increased monumentally. In the early 21st century there remained a government-imposed daily tourist tariff to ensure significant tourist input into the economy.

With greater government expenditure on education and social services, as well as increased allowance to civil servants, government and financial services also expanded since the late 20th century. The services sector—including primarily public administration and defense, finance, trade and restaurants, and public utilities—generates more than two-fifths of Bhutan’s GDP, but it engages a smaller proportion of the country’s workforce.

Labour

The rise in school enrollments and the increase in literacy since the late 20th century have benefited the country’s economic development. However, they also contributed to serious imbalances in the labour force. Formal schooling generally has directed students away from agricultural vocations; consequently, by the early 21st century rural areas had begun to experience significant labour shortages, while Bhutan’s educated youth struggled to find employment in urban areas. Meanwhile, the number of Bhutanese sufficiently trained in medicine, engineering, education, and other professional fields continued to fall short of the country’s needs.

Transportation and telecommunications

Bhutan’s development plans have stressed the improvement of transportation and communications, and by the early 21st century the combined sectors had become a significant contributor to the country’s GDP. The roughly 120-mile (200-km) highway linking Phuntsholing to Thimphu is part of an expanding network of roads the government built to open up the country. Highways constructed through difficult mountain terrain connect roads from India to Thimphu and to Paro in western Bhutan, to Tongsa in central Bhutan, and to Tashigang in eastern Bhutan. The construction of a major east-west road also has been completed. Bhutan has one international airport, in Paro, from which Druk Air, the national airline, offers flights to India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Thailand. Indian engineers have assisted the Bhutanese government in laying telephone lines and exchanges, and the principal administrative centres of Bhutan have telecommunication links with India. In 1999 television and the Internet were legalized, and a satellite communication system was established near Thimphu. Seven private radio stations exist along with one state-owned radio and television station. The majority of the population does not have access to the Internet.