The government continued to be plagued by protests over its continuing inability to pay civil servants and the military at the beginning of the new millennium. Attempted military overthrows that troubled the country in the mid-1990s also continued into the 21st century, culminating in the ouster of Patassé in a 2003 coup by former army chief Gen. François Bozizé. Bozizé’s transitional government oversaw the drafting of a new constitution that was approved in late 2004 and democratic elections in 2005, in which Bozizé was elected president.

In June 2005, fighting between government and rebel forces in the north caused tens of thousands of people to flee across the border into Chad; this continued in the ensuing years. There were several cease-fire agreements signed between the government and various rebel groups, particularly in 2007 and 2008, but many of the agreements were not completely implemented. The north was also subject to violence that emanated from conflict in the Darfur region of neighbouring Sudan and spilled over the border, while in the south the population was increasingly terrorized by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), a Ugandan rebel group that had been using the Democratic Republic of the Congo as a base for operations before a military offensive at the end of 2008 pushed them deeper into the Central African Republic and other countries.

The next presidential election, initially due in 2010, was repeatedly postponed. When it did take place, on January 23, 2011, Bozizé and Patassé were both among the candidates. Polling did not go smoothly; before the election results were announced, Patassé and other challengers to Bozizé had lodged complaints that the election was rigged. When the results were announced in early February, Bozizé was declared the winner, with 66 percent of the vote.

In late 2012 a new rebel coalition, known as Seleka, launched an incursion in the northern part of the country. The group, which included factions of former rebel movements, accused Bozizé of not implementing aspects of a previous peace agreement. It demanded his ouster from the presidency and called for him to stand trial at the International Criminal Court. Seleka quickly advanced south but stopped short of Bangui in December and entered into negotiations with the government. In January 2013 Seleka and Bozizé’s administration agreed to a cease-fire and a power-sharing deal that addressed several rebel demands, such as the release of prisoners and the withdrawal of foreign troops in the country. In addition, it provided for the inclusion of some Seleka members in a new unity government and allowed Bozizé to finish his term, with new elections to be held in 2016. As part of the agreement, Bozizé named Nicolas Tiangaye, a lawyer supported by both the opposition and Seleka, as prime minister.

Seleka quickly became disenchanted with the implementation of the deal, claiming that Bozizé failed to honour important aspects of the agreement. In mid-March the group issued an ultimatum for Bozizé and, despite some last-minute concessions from the president, resumed hostilities a few days later. Seleka advanced toward Bangui, seizing the capital on March 24, and Bozizé fled the country. Seleka then claimed control of the government. Seleka’s actions were widely condemned by the international community, and the African Union (AU) suspended the country from the organization and imposed sanctions on rebel leaders. One of the rebel leaders, Michel Djotodia, claimed to be the de facto head of state and initially promised to uphold the terms of the January power-sharing agreement. He then later announced that he was suspending the constitution and dissolving the National Assembly and the government. Djotodia’s first attempt at forming a transitional government was rejected by the opposition as well as by the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS; also known by its French acronym, CEEAC) regional body, which called for the formation of a national transitional council that would administer the country until elections could be held. Djotodia accepted ECCAS’s recommendations, and in April a council was formed. Soon after, Djotodia was elected president of the interim body, but he was not inaugurated until August 18, 2013.

The interim government struggled to restore order and perform the normal functions of state. Meanwhile, Seleka rebels had been pillaging parts of the country and engaging in horrific acts of violence, rape, and kidnapping. Djotodia formally disbanded Seleka on September 13, but that did not curb the rebels’ actions, nor was his government able to effectively stop them. The primarily Christian civilian population began to form militias, known as anti-balaka (Sango: “anti-machete” or “machete proof”) or anti-balles AK (French: “against the bullets from an AK-47 rifle”), to protect themselves against the mainly Muslim rebels, which in turn degenerated into a cycle of violent attacks between Christians and Muslims, even civilians, that left hundreds dead and thousands displaced. Analysts warned of the potential for the situation to further degenerate into genocide should nothing be done to stop the violence. On December 5 the UN Security Council voted to authorize the deployment of an African-led peacekeeping force that would incorporate ECCAS troops already in the country, as well as the deployment of additional French troops to augment the country’s existing military presence there, in an effort to protect the civilian population. Still, the humanitarian situation at the end of the year was bleak, with more than 800,000 people displaced and almost half of the country’s population in need of aid.

In January 2014 ECCAS held a summit to address the worsening situation in the country. At the end of the summit, on January 10, under pressure from regional leaders who were frustrated with the interim government’s inability to restore order, both Djotodia and Tiangaye announced their resignations. Later that month the transitional council elected Catherine Samba-Panza, the mayor of Bangui, to be the new interim president. She was inaugurated on January 23.

Unrest continued throughout the year, even after a cease-fire was signed in July by Seleka and the anti-balaka. In April the UN Security Council had approved the deployment of a UN-led peacekeeping mission, which in September took over operations from the African- and French-led forces already in the country. Insecurity continued to be an issue, however. The transitional government organized the Bangui National Forum, a weeklong meeting between members of the transitional authorities, militias, and civil society, which was held in May 2015. At the end of the forum, representatives of several militias and the transitional government signed an agreement providing for the conditions of the disarmament, demobilization, reintegration, and repatriation (DDRR) of militia members.

A constitutional referendum and general elections scheduled for 2015 were repeatedly postponed but eventually did take place. The referendum, held on December 13, 2015, resulted in a new constitution being approved with about 93 percent of the vote. The presidential and legislative elections were held on December 30, 2015. None of the 30 presidential candidates won an absolute majority, so the top two vote-getters, former prime ministers Anicet Georges Dologuélé and Faustin-Archange Touadéra, were slated to face each other in a runoff election in early 2016. Problems with the legislative elections surfaced, and on January 25, 2016, the Constitutional Court announced that the results of those polls would be annulled and that they would be rerun at a later date.

The presidential runoff election and the rerun legislative elections were held on February 14, 2016. Touadéra was declared the victor, earning more than 62 percent of the vote, and he was sworn in on March 30. Shortly thereafter the AU ended its suspension of the country, citing the progress made with restoring constitutional order. The new National Assembly convened for the first time in May.

In spite of the progress made with transitioning to a democratically elected government and the new administration’s commitment to supporting a DDRR program to facilitate the reintegration of militia groups into society, insecurity continued to plague the Central African Republic. The government did not have control over much of the country, and sectarian and communal violence increased, as did the clashes between various armed groups as they battled for control over territory as well as resources. Civilians caught up in the conflict were subjected to horrible acts that included torture, rape, and death. The leader of one of the Seleka factions, Nourredine Adam, had declared the creation of the autonomous Republic of Logone in the north in December 2015; the self-declared republic was not recognized by the international community. In the following years his faction of Seleka battled other militias trying to exert control over the area. The country also had to deal with violence from outside actors: the LRA, a Ugandan rebel group that had been active in the Central African Republic for several years, continued to abduct and kill civilians. The level of violence in the country meant that by early 2018 some one-fifth to one-fourth of the population had been displaced, either within the Central African Republic or as refugees in neighbouring countries, and more than half of the population urgently needed humanitarian aid.