Conditions in Hungary in 1920 were exceedingly difficult in every respect. The prolonged war, the Bolshevik regime (before which mobile capital had fled headlong), and the rapacious Romanian occupation had exhausted its resources, and the economy had been further disrupted by the new frontiers, which cut factories off from both their accustomed supply sources and their markets. Industrial unemployment had reached unprecedented heights, and the surviving national resources were being strained to support nearly 400,000 refugees from the successor states.

Both industrial and agrarian workers were embittered by the failure of their revolutionary hopes. Even more dangerous were the armies of the “new poor,” not only the homeless refugees but also a large part of the middle classes in general, reduced to penury by the galloping inflation. They formed a radical army, one of the right that ascribed their misery precisely to the revolutions, on which they put the blame for all Hungary’s misfortunes. Feelings ran particularly high against the Jews, who had played a disproportionately large part in both revolutions, especially Kun’s, but the resentment extended also to the Social Democrats and even to Liberal democracy.

“White terrorists” wreaked indiscriminate vengeance on persons whom they associated with the revolutions. Huszár’s government itself had turned so sharply on the Social Democrats and the trade unions that the former withdrew their representatives from the government and boycotted the elections, in protest against the widespread killings, arrests, and internments. (Modern calculations have put the number of those executed to somewhere between 1,000 and 2,000.) Communists, radical democrats, Jewish intellectuals, and assorted academics emigrated in large numbers, among them such renowned personalities as scientists Theodore von Kármán and Leo Szilárd, social philosophers Michael Polanyi and Karl Mannheim, economist Karl Polanyi, sociologist Oszkár Jászi, philosopher György Lukács, film directors Sir Alexander Korda and László Vajda, and artists László Moholy-Nagy and Béni Ferenczy.

The government of Pál, Count Teleki, who succeeded Simonyi-Semadam in July 1920, blunted the edge of the agrarian unrest with a modest reform—promised, indeed, only as a first installment—that took 1.7 million acres (7.5 percent of the total area of the country) from the biggest estates for distribution in smallholdings. But it had hardly touched any other social problem when in March 1921 the legitimist question was raised in acute form by King Charles’s sudden return to Hungary. He was ordered to withdraw by the Allies with the willing compliance of the right-wing radicals, toward whom Horthy was then leaning. The government, several of whose members were legitimists, resigned, and the succession was assumed by the conservative István, Count Bethlen, who had been waiting behind the scenes. Bethlen devised a formula that, while not legally excluding the king’s return (under Entente pressure, Parliament had voted a law dethroning the Habsburgs, but even Hungary’s own antilegitimists never took it as morally binding), excluded it in practice. In return for this, the Smallholders’ Party agreed with the antilegitimists among the Christian nationalists to form a new Party of Unity under Bethlen’s leadership.

In March 1922 Bethlen persuaded Parliament to accept as still legally in force the franchise enacted in 1918, which reduced the number of voters and reintroduced open voting in rural districts. As a result of this law, 2.4 million of Hungary’s 8 million citizens (about 29 percent of the population) had the right to vote. This proportion compared favourably with those of France, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia but less favourably with those of Austria, England, and the Scandinavian countries. Conducted under this law, the elections in May 1922 gave the Party of Unity a large majority.

Meanwhile, a second attempt by King Charles (in October 1921) to recover his throne failed, and the legitimist question lost its acuteness with Charles’s death in 1922. In December 1921 Bethlen concluded a secret pact with the Social Democrats, under which the latter promised to abstain from political agitation and to support the government’s foreign policy in return for the end of persecution, the release of political prisoners, and the restoration of the sequestrated trade union funds. The peasant leaders were persuaded to accept the indefinite postponement of further land reform. The “White Terror” was liquidated quietly but effectively, chiefly by finding government employment for the right-wing radical leaders.

Bethlen’s domestic program was made possible by his cautious international policy. Almost all Hungarians were passionately convinced of the injustice of the Treaty of Trianon, the redress of which was the all-dominant motive of Hungary’s foreign policy throughout the interwar period and the key to the hostile relations between Hungary and those states that had chiefly profited by it. Bethlen was as revisionist at heart as any of his countrymen, but he was convinced that Hungary could not act effectively in this field until it had acquired friends abroad and had achieved political and economic consolidation at home. This depended on financial reconstruction. To achieve this, he applied for Hungary’s admission to the League of Nations, which was granted (not without difficulty) in September 1922. In March 1924, in return for an agreement to carry out loyally the obligations of the treaty, he obtained a League loan, which had almost magical effects. Inflation stopped immediately. The League loan was followed by a flood of private lending, and the expatriated domestic capital returned. With this help, Hungary enjoyed some years of prosperity, during which agriculture revived and industrialization made progress.

Abroad, Bethlen’s only other important move was the conclusion in 1927 of a treaty of friendship with Italy. At home his regime, which was conservative but not tyrannical, rested on what came to be called Hungary’s conservative-liberal forces, to the exclusion of extremism from left or right.