Struggle for independence (c. 1830–1904)

In the 1830s Iceland was allotted two seats at a new consultative assembly for the Danish Isles established at Roskilde, Denmark. This arrangement kindled a desire in Iceland for a restoration of the Icelandic Althing as a consultative assembly for the nation. Christian VIII granted the Icelanders their wish, and in 1845 a restored Althing met for the first time—not at Thingvellir, as originally intended, but in Reykjavík. Franchise to the assembly was almost entirely restricted to officials and farmers.

In 1848 Christian’s successor, Frederick VII, renounced his absolute power, and a constitutional assembly was summoned to prepare a representative democracy in Denmark. This led inevitably to the question of what was to become of Iceland in the new form of government. By that time Iceland had a relatively undisputed political leader: Jón Sigurdsson, a philologist living in Copenhagen. Jón argued that the king could only give his absolute rule over Iceland back to the Icelanders themselves, since they were the ones who had surrendered it to him in 1662. This claim was met with a royal pledge that the constitutional status of Iceland would not be decided until the Icelanders had discussed the matter at a special assembly. This assembly met in 1851, but no agreement could be reached between the Icelandic representatives and the Danish government. The assembly was dissolved in disappointment. A stalemate of more than 20 years ensued, but the Althing decided to use the occasion of the millennium of Iceland’s settlement to accept the status that Danish authorities were by then willing to grant. Thus, in 1874 the king presented Iceland with a constitution whereby the Althing was vested with legislative power in internal affairs. As before, however, the cabinet minister responsible for Iceland was the minister of justice in the Danish government.

For an additional three decades the Icelanders continued to demand that executive power be transferred to Iceland. In 1901 the path was opened when rule by parliamentary majority was introduced in Denmark and the Liberals—always more positive than the Conservatives toward the Icelanders—came into power. In 1904 Iceland got home rule, and the first Icelandic minister opened his office in Reykjavík. At the same time, rule by parliamentary majority was introduced.

The high level of political activity in 19th-century Iceland stands in sharp contrast to its economic stagnation, which was considerable compared with the countries of western Europe. The significant growth of Iceland’s population put increasing strain on the badly eroded soil in rural areas, and for many people the only visible solution was emigration to North America. Some 15,000 Icelanders emigrated between 1870 and 1914, most of them to Canada. Virtually the only successful technical innovation during that period was the introduction of decked fishing vessels, which made it possible to catch fish farther offshore than could be done on open boats. Still, at the beginning of the 20th century, more than half the annual catch was still taken in open boats.

Home rule and sovereignty (1904–44)

The period of home rule (1904–18) was one of rapid progress. Motors were installed in many of the open fishing boats, and a number of steam-driven trawlers were acquired. The country was connected by telegraph cable with Europe. School attendance was made compulsory for children in towns and villages, and a number of schools were built. The University of Iceland was established (1911) in Reykjavík, which by 1918 had a population of 15,000. All restrictions on the freedom to move to the fishing villages were either abolished or quietly forgotten. There was a radical transformation in the occupational structure of the country, which in turn led to the advent of a labour movement. In 1916 a national organization of trade unions was established. By then unions were already widely accepted by employers as negotiating bodies, but their formal status was not legalized until 1938. In the political arena, democracy was extended to new groups. Women and propertyless men were given the franchise, subject to certain qualifications, in 1915. Four years earlier a law had been passed that gave women the right to attend schools of higher education, enter into the professions, and occupy any public office in the country.

The struggle for greater autonomy continued until the dispute with Denmark was solved. On December 1, 1918, Iceland became a separate state under the Danish crown, with only foreign affairs remaining under Danish control. Either party, however, had the right to call for a review of the treaty, and if negotiations about its renewal proved fruitless at the end of 25 years (i.e., 1943) it would be terminated.

The struggle for independence that had shaped Icelandic politics for almost a century now subsided, and in the 1920s a new system of political parties based on class divisions emerged. Class antagonism grew more severe during the Great Depression of the 1930s; the depression was prolonged in Iceland when the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 closed the important Spanish market for Icelandic fish. The problem of high unemployment persisted until after the outbreak of World War II.

The German occupation of Denmark in April 1940 effectively dissolved the union between Iceland and Denmark. A month later British forces occupied Iceland. In 1941 the United States took over the defense of Iceland and stationed a force of 60,000 in the country. The foreign forces brought employment, prosperity, and high inflation to the population, which then numbered about 120,000.

The war made it impossible for Iceland and Denmark to renegotiate their treaty. In spite of great resentment in Denmark, the Icelanders decided to terminate the treaty, break all constitutional ties with Denmark, and establish a republic. On June 17, 1944, now celebrated as National Day, the Icelandic republic was founded at Thingvellir, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.

The Icelandic republic

Since the prosperous years of World War II, Iceland has developed into a modern welfare state with growing production and consumption. A rapid restoration of the trawler fleet after the war prevented the return of prewar unemployment. Fish freezing became a highly technical industry and the mainstay of Iceland’s exports. The economy became characterized by expansion, full employment, high inflation, and much unprofitable investment. It became normal to work overtime and for women to enter the labour market. The advent of regular air service to both Europe and North America in the late 1940s revolutionized communication with the outside world, and the advent of the Internet at the turn of the 21st century meant that Iceland was more connected than ever before. By 2006 it had the world’s highest broadband Internet penetration.