The Indonesian armed forces were founded shortly after the country’s declaration of independence in August 1945. The original forces were made up of soldiers who had been trained by the Dutch and Japanese armies as well as the armed militia groups that had fought a guerrilla war to wrest Indonesia permanently from Dutch control. Under the Sukarno and Suharto presidencies, the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia; ABRI) comprised the army, the navy, the air force, and the police.

Following the Suharto presidency, the armed forces returned to one of their pre-Sukarno names, the National Army of Indonesia (Tentara Nasional Indonesia; TNI), and the police were split into a separate unit. The army, constituting more than three-fourths of the forces, has remained the largest segment of the TNI. Men must be at least 18 years old to join the armed forces; selective compulsory service requires a commitment of two years.

The political role of the armed forces increased significantly in the second half of the 20th century, with the ABRI, and later the TNI, justifying their political involvement by citing the so-called dwi-fungsi (dual function) doctrine. This doctrine declared it both the right and the duty of the military to take part in most political decision-making processes in Indonesia.

As the political power of the military grew, however, the allocation of state funds for defense development declined. The government’s rationale in cutting its military spending was to promote peaceful relations with neighbouring countries; it meant to establish territorial control through political intervention, with the aid of a powerful intelligence network, rather than through the use of force.

Its small budget ultimately forced the TNI to find other sources of income. Widespread corruption ensued as the military abused its associations with foundations and government firms. Finally, the TNI was removed from the political process with the reformation of the MPR in 2004: all seats in the legislature that were once reserved for the military were eliminated.

Health and welfare

Indonesia has a national health care network that offers treatment either free of charge or for a nominal cost through several types of medical facilities. District medical centres, the most comprehensive of which combine general medical clinics with maternal and child-health centres, provide services in family planning, school health, nutrition, communicable-disease control, health statistics, environmental health, health education, dental health, and public-health nursing. The district centres also supervise the community and village health centres (puskesmas), which are the primary health providers in rural areas. A third type of public medical facility is the posyandu, an integrated health-service post that is designed to serve those whose health is most at risk. These posts are more widely available than the village health centres and offer a variety of services to women and children in particular, ranging from immunizations and nutrition counseling to family planning.

In general, the cost of specialized health care, as provided by private hospitals and doctors, is beyond the reach of Indonesians in both the low- and middle-income groups. A government-sponsored health insurance system for specialized care was introduced in the late 20th century, but has been slow to cover people working in small private companies or in the informal sector. Many companies provide medical assistance to employees, but there is no legal requirement to do so.

Most of the major communicable diseases in Indonesia are well under control. Malaria and tuberculosis are no longer persistent health problems, but outbreaks of dengue and cholera still occur. Heart problems and strokes have become more common, owing at least in part to changes in diet that have accompanied economic growth since the 1970s. Cancer also has become more widespread. Drug addiction has increased notably, particularly among young people in the urban centres, and there has been a sharp rise in HIV infection and cases of AIDS, especially since the end of the 20th century.

One of the most serious public health problems is the shortage of medical and paramedical personnel, mainly nurses and midwives. Although all new graduates of the government’s medical schools are required to work for one year in rural areas, few doctors choose to stay in such regions after fulfilling their service obligation. Outside the major urban centres, many people use traditional healers, called dukun. An indigenous midwife (paraji or dukun beranak), often with limited training, assists many of the births in Indonesia; extensive training programs have been implemented to bring the paraji toward the standards of qualified midwives. Such programs contributed to a significant drop in the infant mortality rate—from well above to well below the world average—from the mid-20th to the early 21st century.

Another important public health issue, family planning (keluarga berancana; commonly called “KB”), conceptually runs counter to traditional views, and there was much resistance to such programs when they were introduced. A massive attempt has been made to provide information on family planning to women of childbearing age, typically through clinics that are run by the Department of Health. This program has achieved considerable success, particularly in Java and Bali, and has come to be considered a model in Asia.