History of Iran

Abū Muslim’s revolution

Less time was needed before a new Islamic beginning: Abū Muslim’s movement, which began in Khorāsān in 747 and was caused by Arab assimilation with Iranians in colonized regions. This revolution followed years of conspiracy directed from Medina and across to Khorāsān along the trade route that linked East Asia with Merv and thence with the West. Along the route, merchants with contacts in the Mesopotamian Arab garrison cities of Kūfah, Wāsiṭ, and Basra acted as intermediaries. Iranians who converted to Islam and became clients, or mawālī, of Arab patrons played direct and indirect parts in the revolutionary movement. The movement also involved Arabs who had become partners with Khorāsānian and Transoxanian Iranians in ventures in the great east-west trade and intercity trade of northeastern Iran. The revolution was, nevertheless, primarily an Arab Islamic movement that intended to supplant a militaristic, tyrannical central government—whose fiscal problems made it avid for revenue—by one more sympathetic to the needs of the merchants of eastern Islam. Abū Muslim, a revolutionary of unknown origin, was able to exploit the discontent of the merchant classes in Merv as well as that of the Arab and Iranian settlers. The object of attack was the Umayyad government in Damascus.

When Muhammad died in 632, his newly established community in Medina and Mecca needed a guiding counselor, an imam, to lead them in prayers and an amīr al-muʾminīn, a “commander of the faithful,” to ensure proper application of the Prophet’s divinely inspired precepts. As the Prophet, Muhammad could never be entirely succeeded, but it was accepted that men who had sufficient dignity and who had known him could fulfill the functions, as his caliphs (deputies) and imams. After Abū Bakr and ʿUmar, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān was chosen for this role.

By ʿUthmān’s time, factionalism was growing among Arabs, partly the result of the jealousies and rivalries that accompanied the acquisition of new territories and partly the result of the competition between first arrivals there and those who followed. There was also uncertainty over the most desirable kind of imamate. One faction, the Shiʿah, supported ʿAlī, Muhammad’s cousin and the husband of the Prophet’s favorite daughter, Fāṭimah, for the caliphate, since he had been an intimate of Muhammad and seemed more capable than the other candidates of expressing Muhammad’s wisdom and virtue as the people’s judge. The desire for such a successor points to disenchantment with ʿUthmān’s attempt to strengthen the central government and impose demands on the colonies. His murder in 656 left his Umayyad relatives poised to avenge it, while ʿAlī was raised to the caliphate. A group of his supporters, the Khārijites, desired more freedom than ʿAlī was willing to grant, with a return to the simplest interpretation of the Prophet’s revelation in the Qurʾān, along puritanical lines.

A Khārijite killed ʿAlī in 661. The Shiʿah thenceforth crystallized into the obverse position of the Khārijites, emphasizing ʿAlī’s relationship to the Prophet as a means of making him and his descendants by Fāṭimah the sole legitimate heirs to the Prophet, some of whose spiritual power was even believed to have been transmitted to them. Centuries later this Shiʿism became the official Islamic sect of Iran. In the interim, Shiʿism was a rallying point for socially and politically discontented elements within the Muslim community. In addition to the Khārijites, another minority sect was thus formed, hostile from the beginning to the Umayyad government that seized power on ʿAlī’s death. The majority of Muslims avoided both the Shiʿi and Khārijite positions, following instead the sunnah, or “practice,” as these believers conceived the Prophet to have left it and as Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿUthmān, and ʿAlī, too—known as al-khulafāʾ al-rāshidūn (Arabic: “the rightly guided caliphs”)—had observed and codified it.

Abū Muslim’s revolutionary movement was, as much as anything, representing Medinese mercantile interests in the Hejaz, dissatisfied with Umayyad inability to shelter Middle Eastern trade under a Pax Islamica. To promote the revolution aimed to destroy Umayyad power, the movement exploited Shiʿi aspirations and other forces of disenchantment. The Khārijites were excluded, since their movement opposed the idea of a caliphate of the kind Abū Muslim’s adherents were fighting to establish—one that could command sufficient respect to hold together an Islamic universal state. A discontented element ready to Abū Muslim’s hand in Khorāsān, however, was not a religious grouping but Arab settlers and Iranian cultivators who were burdened by taxation.

In Iran the first Arab conquerors had concluded treaties with local Iranian magnates who had assumed authority when the Sasanian imperial government disintegrated. These notables—the marzbāns and landlords (dehqāns)—undertook to continue tax collection on behalf of the new Muslim power. The advent of Arab colonizers, who preferred to cultivate the land rather than campaign farther into Asia, produced a further complication. Once the Arabs had settled in Iranian lands, they, like the Iranian cultivators, were required to pay the kharāj, or land tax, which was collected by Iranian notables for the Muslims in a system similar to that which had predated the conquest. The system was ripe for abuse, and the Iranian collectors extorted large sums, arousing the hostility of both Arabs and Persians.

Another source of discontent was the jizyah, or head tax, which was applied to non-Muslims of the tolerated religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. After they converted to Islam, Iranians expected to be exempt from this tax. But the Umayyad government, burdened with imperial expenses, often refused to exempt the Iranian converts.

The tax demands of the Damascus government were as distasteful to those urbanized Arabs and Iranians in commerce as they were to those in agriculture, and hopes of easier conditions under the new rulers than under the Sasanids were not fully realized. The Umayyads ignored Iranian agricultural conditions, which required constant reinvestment to maintain irrigation works and to halt the encroachment of the desert. This no doubt made the tax burden, from which no returns were visible, all the more odious. Furthermore, the regime failed to maintain the peace so necessary to trade. Damascus feared the breaking away of remote provinces where the Arab colonists were becoming assimilated with the local populations. The government, therefore, deliberately encouraged tribal factionalism in order to prevent a united opposition against it.

Thus the revolution set out to establish an Islamic ecumene above divisions and sectarianism, the Pax Islamica already referred to, which commerce required and which Iranian merchants without status in the Sasanian social hierarchy looked to Islam to provide. Ease of communication from the Oxus River (modern Amu Darya) to the Mediterranean Sea was wanted but without what seemed like a nest of robbers calling themselves a government and straddling the route at Damascus. In 750 Umayyad power was destroyed, and the revolution gave the caliphate to the Abbasids (see Islamic world and Iraq: The Abbasid caliphate).

Hejazi commercial interests had in a sense overcome the military party among leading Muslim Arabs. Greater concern for the east was manifested by the new caliphate’s choice of Baghdad as its capital—situated on the Tigris a short distance north of Ctesiphon and designed as a new city, to be free of the factions of the old Umayyad garrison cities of Kūfah, Wāsiṭ, and Basra.