Since 1960, new law codes have liberated women from traditional restraints, defined the rights and duties of citizens, and modified the penal procedure. The 1992 constitution furthered women’s rights considerably, although constitutionally guaranteed rights for women have not always been carried out in practice.

Mali has universal adult suffrage. Women and minorities have served in government positions, but in limited numbers: in the early 21st century, ethnic minorities and marginalized populations together held about one-tenth of the National Assembly seats, as did women. Women have also held cabinet posts and served on the Supreme Court, and the country’s first female prime minister was appointed in 2011.

The country has had political parties at various times since it gained independence in 1960. Under the first president, Modibo Keita, the Soudanese Union Party eventually became the only party until the military took over in 1968. Civilian government returned in 1979, when the country was led again by a one-party system, this time the Malian People’s Democratic Union, headed by Moussa Traoré, who was ultimately deposed in 1991 in favour of another military government, led by Amadou Toumani Touré. Political parties were once again allowed in 1992, and Alpha Konaré, of the Alliance for Democracy in Mali, was elected president that year. Since then, many political parties have been active in Mali.

Security

Mali has a conscripted army, which requires two years of service, including the possibility of nonmilitary service. Mali’s military forces include army and air force contingents and a limited navy contingent as well. Paramilitary forces include the national police force, the republican guard, the militia, and gendarmerie units. Foreign troops—including French troops and those under the banner of the African-led International Support Mission in Mali (AFISMA) and a UN peacekeeping operation, the Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA)—were present in Mali since 2013 to thwart the actions of Islamist fighters and maintain security while the country recovered from the 2012 coup and prepared for fresh elections.

Health and welfare

Mali has few resources for health care, and child and infant mortality rates are among the highest in the world. State hospitals at Bamako and Kati are supplemented by a network of medical centres, maternity centres, dispensaries, and a mobile service that visits patients in rural areas. Research centres in tropical ophthalmology and leprosy treat patients at Bamako. Health care services are also provided by international relief organizations. Despite improvements in medical care, Mali is still challenged by a lack of personnel, facilities, resources, and supplies and by difficulties involving poor access to much of the country. Malnutrition and inadequate sanitation are also problems in many areas. Some progress has been made against polio, onchocerciasis (river blindness), schistosomiasis, and leprosy, but yellow fever and cholera are common, and malaria remains a leading cause of death. While Mali has not been hit as hard by HIV as some African countries, AIDS is becoming more prevalent in urban areas.

Housing

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Houses in Mali are typically built of a mixture of earth and cement. Malian towns exhibit an eclectic mix of styles, including traditional mud huts, concrete houses, European-style villas, and mosques and government buildings in the Sudanese style. The Dogon built their houses into the Bandiagara Escarpment, which was designated a World Heritage site in 1989. These houses, built out of mud, have flat roofs where the inhabitants can sleep in warm weather, and their granaries have thatched conical roofs; both structures have decorative doors. Other houses, such as historic dwellings found in Djenné, were built on small hills to protect from seasonal flooding.

Education

French, spoken by only a very small segment of the population, was the only language of instruction until 1994, when national languages such as Bambara and Fula were introduced into primary schools. Mali utilizes an educational track resembling the school system in France, Mali’s former colonial authority. In this system, primary and secondary education are compulsory and free from 7 to 16 years of age and are combined in the nine-year curriculum of the cycle fondemental (fundamental educational level). The general secondary school, or lycée, provides the last three years of traditional secondary education. Higher education—geared directly to the needs of the government—is offered by the University of Bamako (1993) and state colleges, which include teacher-training colleges, a college of administration, an engineering institute, an agricultural and veterinary science institute, and a medical school. Many of Mali’s university students study abroad, especially in France and Senegal. Other school reform has focused on such programs as “ruralization,” in which rural schools teach students about trades such as sewing, building, and farming in addition to such subjects as French, history, mathematics, and geography.

In the early 21st century, Mali remained a vast, poor country where opportunities for even primary education were extremely limited, especially in rural areas or among the nomadic peoples of the north. The World Bank began to assist Mali in 2000 by providing credit so that the country could expand its educational system. At that time only slightly more than half the population entered primary school. Expanding educational opportunities for the female population was also of interest to the Malian government. The country’s literacy rate is one of the lowest in the world, with estimates varying between two-fifths and one-third of the population being able to read. The literacy rate of women is significantly lower than that of men.