In the 1990s, while the economy prospered, environmental concerns increased, not only because of the country’s vulnerability to rising sea levels, river flooding, and the effects of pollution but also because Dutch industry and agriculture were themselves major sources of pollution. In 2006 the Dutch government spurred the European Union (EU) to take a larger role in combating the effects of climate change.

In the later 20th century, the Netherlands had gained a reputation for liberal social policies, such as the toleration of prostitution and of the limited use and sale of marijuana and hashish. Same-sex marriages and euthanasia were legalized, and penal sentences were relatively light. The Netherlands also was one of the most heavily planned and regulated Western societies, though there were efforts to reduce the role of the state in the 1980s and ’90s.

Although the Dutch tradition of tolerance generally extended to its immigrant population, anti-immigrant politician Pim Fortuyn was able to tap into increasing Dutch uneasiness in 2002. Just nine days before that year’s election, Fortuyn was assassinated—the country’s first modern political killing. Nevertheless, his party gained enough support to become part of a center-right governing coalition. Because of disputes within Fortuyn’s party, however, the government resigned after only three months in office. In subsequent years, other anti-immigration parties rose in prestige, such as the Party for Freedom (Partij voor de Vrijheid; PVV). Tension over immigration continued, with national debates on immigrant amnesty and assimilation, the clash of Christian and Islamic culture, and occasional acts of violence, notably the politically charged murder of filmmaker Theo van Gogh in 2004. By 2006 the government required all potential immigrants to pass a test on Dutch culture and language (taken in their home country) before they could enter the Netherlands.

In 2003 Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende, head of the CDA, formed a centrist coalition with the liberal Democrats ’66 and the People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie; VVD). In the parliamentary elections of 2006, the Socialist Party made large gains, though the CDA retained its majority with Balkenende at the helm in a governing coalition with the Labour Party and the Christian Union. But the political landscape has changed a great deal in the Netherlands since the 1990s, symbolized by the two dramatic political assassinations. In 2005, in the first national referendum held in two centuries, Dutch voters rejected the new constitution of the EU, a result almost inconceivable in a country that, before about 2000, was classically pro-Europe and, perhaps more importantly, had generally been happy to leave such matters to its Eurocentric political elite. Having taken its populist turn, the Netherlands is now perhaps a less unusual country. It remains prosperous, but its welfare state is less distinctively generous, and the famed liberal state has been reined in, while skepticism of European integration and anti-Islam sentiments are increasingly loudly voiced.

Following disagreements over the continued presence of Dutch soldiers in Afghanistan, the Labour Party withdrew from the Netherlands’ governing coalition in February 2010. The Labour Party had demanded that the Dutch force return home by August 2010, as anticipated, while the CDA had backed an extended deployment. The collapse of the government triggered parliamentary elections in June, with results that reflected both a growing anxiety over the economy—because of concern in the euro zone about the expanding sovereign debt crisis—and a new surge of anti-immigrant sentiment. The prime beneficiary of the latter was the anti-Islam PVV, led by Geert Wilders, which finished a strong third to the virtually deadlocked Liberal and Labour parties, with the CDA dropping about half its seats to finish fourth. As no party had secured an outright majority, it took months of negotiation before the Liberals and the CDA agreed, in October, to form a center-right governing coalition, with Liberal leader Mark Rutte as prime minister. Although Wilders’s party was excluded from the cabinet, its key role in policy making was assured, as the minority government required the PVV’s parliamentary support in order to pass legislation.

Throughout 2011, Rutte’s coalition government introduced a series of austerity measures designed to reduce the country’s deficit. Protests erupted as voters voiced their opposition to cuts to popular social welfare programs, and Wilders began to distance himself from the coalition. When Rutte in April 2012 presented a budget designed to bring the Netherlands into line with the EU’s recently adopted deficit cap, Wilders responded by withdrawing his support for the coalition. The government collapsed, and Rutte remained in office as the head of a caretaker administration while early elections were scheduled. In those elections in September 2012, Dutch voters moved sharply toward the center. Support for minor parties, such as the CDA, the PVV, and Green-Left, collapsed as both the VVD and the Labour Party reaped the benefits of an electorate that craved stability. Together, the VVD and the Labour Party—with 41 and 39 seats, respectively—commanded a majority of the 150-seat parliament, and the two parties formed a coalition government.

In a television address to the Dutch people on January 28, 2013, Queen Beatrix announced her intention to abdicate the throne to her son Prince Willem-Alexander. Following a tradition of abdication established by her mother, Juliana, and her grandmother Wilhelmina, Beatrix said that it was time for a new generation to rule. On April 30, 2013, Willem-Alexander ascended the throne to become the first Dutch king in over a century. His wife, Máxima, became queen consort, and their eldest daughter, Catharina-Amalia, was named princess of Orange as the first in line of succession.

On July 17, 2014, the Netherlands found itself drawn into the Russian-backed conflict in eastern Ukraine when Malaysia Airlines flight MH17, traveling from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur, crashed in rebel-held territory. The plane had been carrying 298 people, two-thirds of whom hailed from the Netherlands, and the Dutch Safety Board took the lead role in the investigation of the disaster. An examination of the wreckage determined that the plane had been hit by a Russian-made Buk surface-to-air missile, and investigators determined that it had been fired from an area controlled by pro-Russian separatists. Russia disputed the conclusions, claiming that the investigation was “politically motivated.”

Wilders faced hate crime charges in a trial that began on October 31, 2016, after the anti-immigrant politician’s attorneys failed to have the case dismissed. Wilders, who had been previously tried and acquitted of inciting hatred toward Muslims in 2011, faced new charges in connection with a 2014 rally at which he promised that the number of Moroccans allowed to enter the Netherlands would be reduced. On December 9 he was found guilty of inciting discrimination, but the court declined to impose a sentence. Amid a surging wave of populism worldwide, Wilders’s Euroskeptic PVV continued to poll strongly ahead of the March 2017 general election. The party performed well below expectations, however, finishing a distant second to Rutte’s VVD. Pledges made by Dutch mainstream parties all but ensured that the PVV would be shut out of coalition talks.