Austrian archduchess Maria Theresa’s educational reforms of the 18th century produced a highly literate public. Slovene literature flourished in the late 18th and early 19th century—particularly the work of Slovenia’s national poet, France Prešeren (1800–49). The luminaries of the Modern school—novelist and playwright Ivan Cankar and the poet Oton Župančič—were the first of a long list of politically influential writers. Among the key figures between World Wars I and II were the realistic novelist Prežihov Voranc and the avant-gardist Srečko Kosovel. Poet Edvard Kocbek was prominent during and after World War II; an antifascist, he suffered at the hands of former comrades.

Slovenes’ great pride in their country’s musical accomplishments rests partly on the fact that Ludwig van Beethoven conducted the first performance of his Sixth (Pastoral) Symphony for the Philharmonic Society (now the Slovene Philharmonic Orchestra) in Ljubljana. Jakob Petelin Gallus-Carniolus, more commonly known as Jacob Handl, was one of Slovenia’s most renowned Renaissance composers. In the second half of the 20th century, the traditional music of Slovene brothers Slavko and Vilko Avsenik became popular worldwide. Their accordion-dominated folk music continues to be a model for other Slovene bands.

Slovene visual arts became internationally recognized through the works of 20th-century Impressionist painters such as Anton Ažbe (who established a private art school in Munich), Ivan Grohar, Matija Jama, Matej Sternen, and Rihard Jakopič. Early visual art in Slovenia is represented through the dozens of frescoes, carvings, and sculptures in churches and monasteries throughout the country, many dating from as early as the 12th and 13th centuries. The International Biennial of Graphic Arts is held annually in Ljubljana.

Slovene theatre also became more recognized worldwide in the late 20th century, though its origins date from Dec. 28, 1789, when dramatist Anton Tomaž Linhart translated and adapted Joseph Richter’s German comedy Die Feldmühle (“The Country Mill”) into Slovene as upanova Micka (“Micka, the Mayor’s Daughter”). In 1867 the Slovene Dramatic Society was founded in Ljubljana. The capital remains the focus of Slovene theatre; however, there are a smattering of professional theatres throughout the country, including puppet theatres and youth theatres. A small but influential film industry emerged in Slovenia after World War II.

Architecture plays a special role in Slovenia’s cultural heritage as well. Particularly renowned is architect Jože Plečnik, some of whose most impressive works are visible on the banks of the Ljubljanica River. One of the best known of these is the National and University Library, in Ljubljana. Also in the capital are his impressive Three Bridges and Central Market.

Cultural institutions

Ljubljana is the cultural capital of Slovenia. Most of the country’s cultural institutions are located there, including the Slovenian Philharmonic Building (1891), the National Gallery of Slovenia (1918), the Slovene National Theatre for Opera and Ballet (1892), the Slovene National Theatre for Drama (1992; born from the Slovene Dramatic Society), and the National Museum of Slovenia (1921). The National and University Library (1941) holds the largest collection of reference materials in the country. Cankarjev Dom (1982), a cultural and exhibition centre, hosts major concerts and international congresses. Bled Castle, located near the capital on a cliff over Lake Bled, was awarded to the bishops of Brixen in the 11th century; today it is part of the National Museum of Slovenia. The Slovenian Literary Society (1919) was established after World War I to support and foster the Slovene identity.

Sports and recreation

Like most Europeans, Slovenes have a passion for football (soccer), and there are several leagues at all levels throughout the country. Despite its short tenure—a result of the country’s relatively recent independence—the Slovene national team has had more than a little success in European and World Cup competition (it qualified for the European Cup in 2000 and its first World Cup in 2002). During the last decades of the 20th century, basketball and hockey also became popular. The national basketball and hockey teams participated in several world championships.

Slovenia has well-developed winter sports centres at Kranjska Gora and Planica, where World Cup skiing events for men are traditionally held, and at Maribor, where the women’s competitions are hosted. Summer sports are also well represented, with numerous hiking trails, dozens of Olympic-quality swimming centres, and equestrian rings, which are centred on the village of Lipica.

The 1992 Winter Olympic Games in Albertville, France, were the first in which the country’s team participated under the flag of an independent Slovenia. Previously, Slovene athletes had competed for the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes and for Yugoslavia. One of Slovenia’s most famous athletes, gymnast Leon Štukelj (1898–1999), won six Olympic medals, three of which were gold.

Media and publishing

Slovenia’s independent daily newspapers include Delo (“Work”), Slovenske Novice (“Slovene News”), and Dnevnik (“Journal”), which are published in Ljubljana, and Večer (“Evening”), which is published in Maribor. The weekly journals Mladina and Mag are politically oriented. The monthly scholarly and literary journal Nova revija (“New Review”) was influential in Slovenia’s political transition. Perhaps its most famous issue was No. 57, released in 1987 with an article titled “Contributions to a Slovenian National Programme,” in which Slovenian intellectuals called for independence and a democratic republic. The Nova Revija publishing house was established in 1990 and produces works in the humanities and social sciences.

Following the abolition of a state radio and television monopoly in the early 1990s, dozens of privately owned radio and television stations were established. The Slovenian Radio-Television national broadcasting service (RTV Slovenija), established in the 1920s, offers programming in Slovene, Hungarian, and Italian.

The Slovene lands to 1918