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Wormwood (Artemisia), saltworts, and ephemeral species characterize the arid Kura-Aras Lowland, and similar vegetation occurs in the Middle Aras Trough. In Kolkhida and in the Länkäran Lowland, the subtropical broad-leaved forests once covering these areas have given way to cultivation.
In the lower elevations of the mountains themselves, at altitudes between 2,000 and 3,000 feet, arboreal brushwood and broad-leaved forest predominate. On the Black Sea slopes of the Greater Caucasus and in the mountainous hinterland of Kolkhida, there are mixed forests of beech, oak, hornbeam, chestnut, and alder, with lianas and an evergreen undergrowth on terra rossa and yellow soils. In the Talish Mountains, forests of chestnut-leaf oak and ironwood (Parrotia persica) flourish on yellow soils, while farther north on the heights backing the dry Kura-Aras Lowland grow forests and brushwood of xerophytic (drought-resistant) species.
At higher altitudes, up to 6,500 feet, both the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus support forests of oak, hornbeam, and beech on brown soils; these are superseded at higher elevations by forests of Caucasian elm and Nordmann fir in the west and southwest and, occasionally, by pine forests farther east. Feather grass and needlegrass cover the black soil of the steppes on the lava plateaus and plains of the Armenian Highland.
Above elevations of 6,500 feet in the Greater Caucasus and in the Transcaucasian ranges, mountain meadow vegetation covers three successive belts: subalpine, alpine, and subnivean. A zone of glaciers and perpetual snow begins at about 10,000 feet.
Animal life
The fauna of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus includes certain endemic species—the West Caucasian and the Dagestanian mountain goat, or tur, the Caucasian black grouse, and the Caucasian mountain turkey, or ular—and even some endemic genera, such as the long-clawed mole vole (Prometheomys schaposchnikowi). Other common mammals include the chamois, red deer, bear, lynx, and fox. The Kura-Aras Lowland is home to the Persian gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), long-eared hedgehog, jerboa, and jungle cat (Felis chaus). The fauna of the Talish Mountains, which includes leopard and porcupine, is related to that of more southerly territories, while that of the Armenian Highland is related to that of Anatolia, with its ground squirrel, or suslik (Citellus), and mountain jerboa (Allactaga williamsi).
Settlement patterns
The rural population of Transcaucasia is unevenly distributed. The most densely populated part of the region is along the Black Sea coast; the Rioni River valley and several smaller valleys are intensively cultivated and support large farm populations; and the foothills of the mountains are thickly settled. The alpine regions of the Caucasus and the arid steppes and lowlands of the Caspian littoral, however, are sparsely populated. Urban dwellers account for nearly three-fifths of the entire population of Transcaucasia, and in Armenia the proportion is even greater. Three cities—Baku, Tbilisi (Tiflis), and Yerevan—each have populations well in excess of one million.
The people
Caucasia has long played a major role as a link between Europe and Asia, and through it the culture of ancient Mesopotamia spread northward. Indigenous cultures also arose; Transcaucasia was one of the most ancient centres of bronze working from the first half of the 2nd millennium bce. Autochthonous peoples of the Caucasus are mentioned by Herodotus and by later writers such as Strabo. In the centuries between preclassical antiquity and the 14th century ce, Caucasia underwent successive invasions by various peoples, including Scythians, Alani, Huns, Khazars, Arabs, Seljuq Turks, and Mongols. Contacts were also maintained with the Mediterranean world. This history of invasions and distant contacts has left its imprint on the culture of the peoples of Transcaucasia. Middle Eastern influences, in particular, disseminated Iranian languages on the one hand and Christian and Islamic religion on the other. The later history, beginning with a long period of rivalry between Ottoman Turkey and Iran, is marked by the advance of Russian culture, which penetrated farther and farther into Caucasia from the 16th century onward. Throughout this process, individual ethnic groups, under pressure from stronger neighbours, took refuge in the ravines of the mountain ranges to preserve themselves in isolation.
More than 50 different peoples inhabit Transcaucasia; these groups have cultures extending back to ancient times. Since antiquity the Caucasus has been known for its large number of distinct languages; Arab geographers called the region Jabal Al-Alsun (“Mountain of Languages”).
Several language families are represented in the region. Of the Indo-European languages, Armenian (which is the official language of Armenia) has the greatest number of speakers. Greek is spoken in parts of southern Georgia, and several languages of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European are also spoken. The latter consist of Ossetic (spoken in central Georgia), Talysh (spoken in far southeastern Azerbaijan, on the Caspian Sea), Kurdish (spoken in scattered areas in Armenia and southern Georgia), and Tat (spoken in northeastern Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijani (also called Azeri) is a member of the Turkic family within the Altaic language group and has the largest number of speakers of any of the languages of Transcaucasia. Another Turkic language, Anatolian Turkish, is spoken in a few communities in Azerbaijan.
The rest of the languages spoken in the region are classified as Caucasian languages, which fall into three typologically well-defined families: the Abkhazo-Adyghian, or Northwest, Caucasian languages; the Nakho-Dagestanian, or Northeast, languages; and the Kartvelian, or South Caucasian, languages. A genetic relationship between the Northeast and Northwest languages seems probable, but the absence of regular sound correspondences between North and South Caucasian languages strongly suggests that the two northern divisions form a family separate from the southern group.
Abkhaz, numerically the most important Abkhazo-Adyghian language of Transcaucasia, is spoken chiefly in Abkhazia republic, Georgia; and Abaza, which is closely related to Abkhaz, is spoken along a portion of the coast of the Georgian republic of Ajaria.
The Nakho-Dagestanian languages are a complex group, sometimes subdivided into Nakh, or Central, languages and Dagestanian, or East Caucasian, languages. The only Nakh language of Transcaucasia is Bats, an unwritten language with only a few thousand speakers in north-central Georgia. The Dagestanian languages spoken in this region are Lezgian, Avar, Kryz, Udi, Khinalug, and Budukh, all but Avar being categorized as Lezgian languages.
Chief among the Kartvelian languages is Georgian, which has the largest number of speakers of any Caucasian language. The Georgian language is also distinguished by a literary tradition that dates to the 5th century ce. The other Kartvelian languages are Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan, each of which is spoken mainly in Georgia.