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Instead, the conflict between the northern and southern political leaders worsened dramatically in the second half of 1993 and the early months of 1994. For the second time in little more than a year, Vice President al-Bayḍ left Sanaa and retired to Aden, taking many of his YSP colleagues with him. Despite major efforts at reconciliation, from within and without Yemen, the political struggle escalated into armed conflict in the spring of 1994, and YSP leaders and other southern politicians—still in control of their armed forces—resorted to armed secession in the early summer of that year. The War of Secession of 1994, lasting from May to early July, resulted in the defeat of the southern forces and the flight into exile of most of the YSP leaders and their soldiers and other supporters.
The short civil war left the YSP in political shambles and left control of the state in united Yemen in the hands of a GPC-Iṣlāḥ coalition dominated by President Saleh. Over the next few years, the effort to reorganize politics and to strengthen the voice of the south in Yemen’s political life was hampered in part by the inability of the YSP to resuscitate itself; at the same time, strained relations within the GPC-Iṣlāḥ coalition led to increasing dominance by the GPC and to an oppositional stance on Iṣlāḥ’s part. The political conflict and unrest that accompanied and followed the civil war led to a revival of the power of the security forces and to the curtailment of the freedom of opposition parties, the media, and nongovernmental organizations. Human rights were being violated, but those violations were increasingly protested by groups within Yemen.
Yemen held its second parliamentary election on April 27, 1997. The GPC won a majority of the seats, Iṣlāḥ finished second, and the YSP virtually committed political suicide by boycotting the elections. Given its sizable majority, the GPC chose to rule alone, thereby making Iṣlāḥ the major opposition party in parliament. In late 1994 the plural executive had been abolished and President Saleh reelected to a five-year term by parliament. In September 1999 he was again returned to office, this time in the country’s first direct presidential elections and for a term lengthened to seven years. He had run virtually unopposed, as the YSP candidate was unable to secure the minimum number of votes necessary in the GPC-dominated parliament to stand in the election.
By late 1994 the economy of unified Yemen was in free fall, primarily the result of the loss of remittances and external aid after 1990 and, to a lesser extent, the costs of unification and the War of Secession. Rapidly increasing oil revenues notwithstanding, Yemen had ceased to be economically viable or sustainable. By 1995 it was clear to key leaders in the Saleh regime that economic realities required greatly increased foreign investment and aid and that, in turn, these would not be forthcoming without a stabilized and restructured economy and a peaceful external environment.
Territorial disputes
The Saleh regime realized that its undemarcated border with Saudi Arabia remained the major source of regional conflict—and even war—for Yemen, and, thus, the restoration of good relations with the Saudis and the resolution of the border issue were at the top of the Saleh regime’s foreign policy agenda. Its attention focused on its relations with the Saudis and the other oil-rich Persian Gulf states, the Saleh regime was waylaid by a dispute in 1995 with newly independent Eritrea. At issue was possession of the Ḥanīsh Islands, a string of tiny islands in the Red Sea between the two countries. When Eritrea initiated conflict over Greater Ḥanīsh and captured Yemeni forces, the possibility of escalation into war became real. Yemen, concerned about frightening off investors, signed an agreement with Eritrea pledging to submit the dispute to international arbitration. In 1998 the arbitration board awarded most of the Ḥanīsh Islands to Yemen, and both sides accepted the ruling. Although relations between Yemen and Eritrea improved initially, they were often strained over the next decade.
The Eritrean conflict notwithstanding, relations with Saudi Arabia remained Yemen’s primary external concern. Saudi pressure on Yemen’s eastern border included threats to international oil companies working under agreements with Yemen in territory claimed by the Saudis. This pressure and a border clash in late 1994—the first of a string of such clashes over the next several years—spurred talks between Yemen and Saudi Arabia that led to the Memorandum of Understanding in January 1995. The agreement called for negotiations to finally determine the border and reaffirmed the Ṭāʾif treaty of 1934, which had both conditionally assigned the disputed territories of Asir, Najrān, and Jīzān to Saudi Arabia and confirmed the right of either country to resort to international arbitration if negotiations failed. After many rounds of talks and a Yemeni threat to resort to arbitration, in June 2000 Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed the long-sought final border agreement, increasing greatly the potential for friendly, mutually beneficial relations between the two countries. For Yemen, the major potential benefits were economic aid and the opportunity for Yemeni workers to once again seek employment in oil-rich Saudi Arabia.
Economic challenges
Faced with the economic collapse of a country whose GDP in 1995 was half that of 1990, the Saleh regime addressed the economic situation with a sense of urgency. From 1995 through most of the first decade of the new millennium, the regime’s efforts to restore the viability and sustainability of Yemen’s economy turned largely on the ambitious multistage IMF and World Bank package of reforms first agreed to by the Saleh regime in 1995. The package consisted of a series of stabilization measures and major structural reforms—and the relevant governance reforms—that Yemen pledged to implement over the course of a decade in exchange for generous amounts of aid, both from those international bodies and from many other external sources. One major goal was to make Yemen an attractive target for much-needed foreign investment. Parallel (but secondary) to this was the effort to further exploit Yemen’s limited oil resources and to begin taking advantage of its also-limited natural gas deposits.
The Saleh regime successfully implemented the initial steps of the IMF and World Bank reform package over the last half of the 1990s. These included currency, budget, and trade reforms, all of which involved economic sacrifices to varying degrees by all sectors of the population. However, by the late 1990s the Saleh regime had demonstrated an increasing lack of will and capacity—mostly political capacity—to adopt and carry out the more demanding economic and governance measures in the package. As a result—and despite threats and some punitive actions by the IMF, the World Bank, and members of the donor community—little progress was made after 2000 in putting into place the reforms needed to attract investors to Yemen, create jobs, foster enterprise, and add to the GDP. Despite gains in the second half of the 1990s, the economy soon plateaued at a low level and by 2005 was barely creating enough jobs and necessary public services to keep up with the country’s rapid population growth. Unemployment remained high, as did the level of malnourishment and the proportion of the population living below the poverty line. As a result, Yemen’s economic situation and prospects in the first decade of the 21st century were grim.
Behind the Saleh regime’s apparent lack of the will and capacity to do what was necessary for its survival was the very nature of that regime. In the 1980s the Saleh regime in North Yemen had gradually crystallized into an oligarchy dominated by military officers, tribal sheikhs, and northern businessmen. Compromised somewhat by the politics of unification, this pyramid of patronage and privilege reasserted and extended itself after 1994; part of the extension involved the “occupation” of the south by northerners, especially military and security officers. Moreover, this “rule by the few” increasingly evolved into a special kind of oligarchy, a kleptocracy, in which the state—with only recent access to oil revenues and increased external aid—functioned primarily to enrich the oligarchs at the expense of the wider public. For the first time, the Yemeni state became a collection of profit centres for the rulers and their associates. Patronage, nepotism, bribery, fraud, and other corrupt practices became the norm rapidly and to an alarming degree.
Unraveling of unification
Yemen and the “war on terror”
The nature and salience of Yemen’s relations with many countries—but especially the United States—changed dramatically with al-Qaeda’s terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001. In fact, the change in relations with the United States was anticipated in the reactions by both countries to the suicide bombing by al-Qaeda of a U.S. naval destroyer, the USS Cole, in Aden’s port nearly a year earlier. Following terrorist bomb attacks on the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 and the rise of Islamic militants in nearby Somalia, the USS Cole incident brought the issue of militant Islam into relation with Yemen. President Saleh’s trip to Washington only days after the September 11 attacks to pledge Yemen’s full support to U.S. Pres. George W. Bush’s “war on terror” notwithstanding, Saleh thereafter had to balance the U.S. demand for no less than full support in the war against the realities of a domestic political landscape marked by Yemeni nationalism, strong Islamic sensibilities, growing anti-American sentiment, and—perhaps most importantly—the central role of some Yemeni militant Islamist leaders and groups in Yemen’s domestic political balance of power. From the USS Cole bombing and especially after the September 11 attacks, President Saleh picked his way carefully, but imperfectly and with difficulty, between these often contradictory forces.
Yemen’s link to revolutionary political Islam runs deeper than the USS Cole bombing and events in eastern Africa—or than the fact that the father of al-Qaeda founder Osama bin Laden immigrated to Saudi Arabia from Wadi Ḥaḍramawt in Yemen. Many of the recruits for the U.S.- and Saudi-orchestrated effort to mount a largely Islamic effort to oust the Soviet Union from Afghanistan in the 1980s came from Yemen, Saudi Arabia’s neighbour (see Afghan War). In the course of this effort, Afghanistan became the main incubator for this new phenomenon: global revolutionary Islam. When a collapsing Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan after 1989, trained and radicalized fighters from throughout the Islamic world made their way home. Specifically, many fighters—both Yemeni and non-Yemeni—went to Yemen, drawn by its porous borders and its vast tribal areas outside the control of the Yemeni state. Thereafter, many of the Yemeni returnees, called “Afghan-Arabs,” fought on the side of the Saleh regime in the War of Secession in 1994. Indeed, the regime became indebted to some of them, and some developed close ties to the regime’s topmost leaders.
Despite both the domestic political problems posed by the war on terror and the unwillingness of the Yemeni oligarchs to adopt reforms that might restore economic viability and address the increasingly desperate condition of most Yemenis, the GPC engineered a big majority in the parliamentary elections in 2003. While Iṣlāḥ remained the only significant opposition party, the YSP did make something of a comeback. By this time, however, the YSP and Iṣlāḥ had joined with the Nasserites and two small Zaydī parties in an increasingly united and assertive opposition coalition, the Joint Meeting Parties (JMP). In 2006 President Saleh again decisively won a new seven-year term, despite the relatively good showing by the candidate of the JMP; the GPC was also successful in the local council elections that were held at the same time. The JMP remained intact after the elections, maintaining a unified opposition to the Saleh regime and at the same time planning for the upcoming parliamentary and presidential elections.
Mounting challenge to the Saleh regime
The conflicting demands of the war on terror and the myriad problems facing Yemen’s economy and society—and, in both areas, things done and left undone by the Saleh regime—cumulatively increased resentment and dissatisfaction throughout Yemen in the early 2000s. A Zaydī youth network, led by the charismatic activist and erstwhile parliamentarian Hussein Badr al-Din al-Houthi, gained traction as an opposition movement against the regime. It reflected the general concerns of Zaydī revivalists, who worried about foreign influence in the country and regarded the Saleh regime as pro-American and pro-Israeli to the detriment of Yemen’s people. In part as a result of the regime’s heavy-handed response to demonstrations organized by the Houthi movement, the opposition escalated into a rebellion that continued to re-erupt and defied third-party efforts to reach a truce.
Beginning in mid-2007, an epidemic of protests and demonstrations, some of them violent, broke out over many months and in a large number of places across southern Yemen. Initiated by disgruntled military officers protesting their forced retirement and meagre pensions, these actions—and the regime’s oftentimes harsh response—soon spread to civil servants, lawyers, teachers, professors, and unemployed youths protesting what they saw as the systematic discrimination against the south since the end of the War of Secession in 1994.
The rebellion in the north and the protests in the south evolved into questions of the legitimacy of the Saleh regime, Yemeni unification, and even republicanism itself. Some protesting southerners, moving beyond the claim that unification amounted to occupation, openly began questioning again the notion of Yemeni unification. Even more crucially, some supporters of the Houthi movement questioned republicanism itself and explicitly called for the restoration of the imamate and rule by Zaydī sayyids.
In addition, a number of bombings occurred in the diplomatic quarter of Sanaa in early 2008, at about the time that al-Qaeda called upon its Yemeni supporters to focus attacks on the western “crusaders” and their Yemeni allies. The bombing at the entrance of the U.S. embassy on September 17, in which some 16 people died, was only the worst of a string of violent incidents claimed by, or blamed on, al-Qaeda and its allies. The Saleh regime’s responses to this and other acts were swift and harsh. Thus, by late 2008 the legitimacy and continuation of the Saleh regime, and even Yemen itself, were being challenged in the north, east, south, and centre—in effect, from just about all quarters.
Robert Burrowes