Summary
| PROS | CONS |
|---|---|
| Pro 1: Cuba has not met the conditions required to lift the embargo or shown a willingness to negotiate in good faith with the United States. Read More. | Con 1: The embargo has failed and harms Americans. Read More. |
| Pro 2: Ending the embargo would only help the Cuban government, not regular Cuban citizens. Read More. | Con 2: The embargo harms everyday Cubans, not the Cuban government. Read More. |
| Pro 3: Cuba sponsors terrorism and responds to American actions with aggression. Read More. | Con 3: The embargo is hypocritical. The United States should not have trading and travel policies for Cuba different from those for other countries with governments or policies it opposes. Read More. |
Pro Arguments
(Go to Con Arguments)Pro 1: Cuba has not met the conditions required to lift the embargo or shown a willingness to negotiate in good faith with the United States.
Proclamation 3447, signed by President Kennedy on Feb. 3, 1962, established the embargo against Cuba to reduce “the threat posed by its alignment with the communist powers.” The embargo was strengthened by the 1992 Cuban Democracy Act and the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (Libertad) Act of 1996 (also known as Helms-Burton), which specified conditions for terminating the embargo. [6][35][49]
According to U.S. law, Cuba must legalize all political activity, release all political prisoners, commit to free and fair elections in the transition to representative democracy, grant freedom to the press, respect internationally recognized human rights, and allow labor unions. Since Cuba has not met these conditions, the embargo should not be lifted. [6][49]
Lifting the sanctions unilaterally would be an act of appeasement that could embolden Cuba to join forces with other countries, such as Venezuela, Nicaragua, Bolivia, China, and Iran, to promote anti-American sentiments or socialism in the Western Hemisphere. The United States should not risk sending the message that it can be waited out or that seizing U.S. property in foreign countries, as Castro did in Cuba when he took power, will be tolerated. [1][59][1][59]
Furthermore, Cuba has not demonstrated a willingness to negotiate in good faith with the United States. President Obama stated in a Sep. 28, 2011, “Open for Questions” roundtable, “Now, what we’ve tried to do is to send a signal that we are open to a new relationship with Cuba….We have to see a signal back from the Cuban government…in order for us to be fully engaged with them. And so far, at least, what we haven’t seen is the kind of genuine spirit of transformation inside of Cuba that would justify us eliminating the embargo.” [11]
Fidel Castro responded the following day by calling Obama “stupid” and saying, “Many things will change in Cuba, but they will change through our efforts and in spite of the United States. Perhaps that empire will fall first.” [75]
Even though President Obama made efforts to normalize diplomatic relations with Cuba in 2015, the Cuban government has failed to improve on human rights. According to a 2022 Human Rights Watch report, “The Cuban government continues to repress and punish virtually all forms of dissent and public criticism. At the same time, Cubans continue to endure a dire economic crisis, which impacts their social and economic rights.” Arbitrary and political imprisonment is frequently used. Further, the government controls all media and restricts outside media. [132]
Pro 2: Ending the embargo would only help the Cuban government, not regular Cuban citizens.
The 90% state-owned economy ensures that the Cuban government and military would reap the gains of open trade with the United States, not private citizens. Foreign companies operating in Cuba are required to hire workers through the state and wages are converted into local currency and devalued at a ratio of 24:1, so a $500 wage becomes a $21 paycheck. A Cuban worker stated, “In Cuba, it’s a great myth that we live off the state. In fact, it’s the state that lives off of us.” [3][64]
The embargo enables the United States to apply pressure on the Cuban government to improve human rights. Several international organizations have written about the long history of human rights abuses and repression in Cuba. At least 4,123 people were detained for political reasons in 2011, and an estimated 6,602 political detentions occurred in 2012. Since the United States agreed to reopen its embassy in Cuba, the Cuban government has continued to persecute and arrest its own citizens. Arbitrary short-term detentions increased between 2010 and 2016, from a monthly average of 172 to a monthly average of 827. While the average had dropped by 2019, the Cuban government was still detaining more than 227 people per month arbitrarily. Newer numbers haven’t been reported; however, a reported 1,400 people were imprisoned for protesting the scarcity of medical supplies on July 11, 2021, illustrating the government’s intolerance of dissent and its speed in imprisoning anyone who dares speak against the government. [7][86][111][133]
The freedom of expression and right to assemble are severely restricted by the government. The 1996 Helms-Burton Act stated that the United States has a “moral obligation” to promote human rights in keeping with the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the embargo is a bargaining tool. [49]
With the embargo in place, the United States is able to target the Cuban government while still providing assistance to Cuban citizens. American policy allows people to visit family members in Cuba and to send money to relatives there. It also permits travel from the U.S. to Cuba for humanitarian and educational reasons. Over $1 billion in remittances (money transferred from abroad) are sent to Cuban families each year, mostly from relatives in the United States. [4]
And Congress gave USAID (the United States Agency for International Development) a total budget of $364 million between fiscal years 1996 and 2019 to promote democracy and human rights in Cuba. [112]
Furthermore, the embargo should be maintained because open travel is insufficient to promote change in Cuba. Many democratic countries already allow travel to Cuba with no results.
More than 2.7 million people from around the world visited Cuba in 2011, including more tourists from Canada than any other country. Despite the steady flow of tourism from Western countries, the Cuban government still maintains total control over its people, because most Cuban nationals are banned from tourist areas, such as resorts and beaches. There would be limited, if any, contact with U.S. citizens vacationing there. [14][59]
Pro 3: Cuba sponsors terrorism and responds to American actions with aggression.
Cuba is known to have repeatedly supported acts of terrorism. It was on the U.S. “State Sponsors of Terrorism” list from 1982 until 2015. The country was reinstated on the list on Jan. 12, 2021. That list, which includes North Korea, Iran, and Syria as of Nov. 30, 2023, is a tally of “countries determined by the Secretary of State to have repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism.” [114][115] [134][114][115][134]
Pro Quotes
Senator Marco Rubio (R-FL) stated,
Advocates of lifting the U.S. embargo on Cuba have a serious misunderstanding of the Cuban economy and the brutal regime that controls the island. First, we must understand what U.S. law does: It bans American businesses from trading with companies or organizations linked to the Cuban regime. It’s nearly impossible to do business on the island without government connections. As a result, all economic activity in Cuba benefits a government with a long history of human rights abuses, including forced labor, torture, and executions….
Only political reform within Cuba would open the door to prosperity. If the regime were to release its political prisoners, allow freedom of the press, and establish free, fair, multiparty elections, real wealth building might occur. And if that happened, the U.S. embargo would end automatically, as intended by U.S. law. But we know Cuba’s dictatorship will never willingly relinquish control.
We saw that in July 2021, when thousands of people across the island took to the streets in protest against their government. Instead of listening to its citizens’ cries for freedom, the dictatorship cracked down on them, blocking internet access, abducting civil society leaders, and using state-sanctioned violence to intimidate protesters.
American companies should not be enriching a brutal, Communist dictatorship 90 miles from our shores. If we want what is best for the Cuban people and in the best interest of the United States, we should keep the embargo in place—until Cuba is finally free.
—Marco Rubio, “Should the U.S. Lift the Embargo on Cuba?,” upfront.scholastic.com, Dec. 12, 2022
Steven Mnuchin, U.S. secretary of the treasury, stated,
Cuba continues to play a destabilizing role in the Western Hemisphere, providing a communist foothold in the region and propping up U.S. adversaries in places like Venezuela and Nicaragua by fomenting instability, undermining the rule of law, and suppressing democratic processes. This Administration has made a strategic decision to reverse the loosening of sanctions and other restrictions on the Cuban regime. These actions will help to keep U.S. dollars out of the hands of Cuban military, intelligence, and security services.
—Steven Mnuchin, “Treasury and Commerce Implement Changes to Cuba Sanctions Rules,” home.treasury.gov, June 4, 2019
Mike Pompeo, U.S. secretary of state, said,
Just as we did in regard to moving our embassy to Jerusalem, the true capital of Israel, or designating the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps for what it is, a terrorist organization, the Trump administration recognizes reality. We see clearly that the [Cuban] regime’s repression of its own people and its unrepentant exportation of tyranny in the region has only gotten worse because dictators perceive appeasement as weakness, not strength.
President Obama’s administration’s game of footsy with the Castros’ junta did not deter the regime from continuing to harass and oppress the heroic Ladies in White, a group of women dedicated to peacefully protesting the regime’s human rights abuses.
More broadly, the regime continues to deprive its own people of the fundamental freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association. Indeed, according to NGO reports, Cuban thugs made more than 2,800 arbitrary arrests in 2018 alone. In the run-up to the country’s recent sham constitutional referendum, one that enshrined the Communist Party as the only legal political party in Cuba, the regime harassed, beat, and detained leaders and—opposition leaders and activists. Three hundred and ten people were arbitrarily detained according to the Cuban Commission on Human Rights and National Reconciliation.
Cuba’s behavior in the Western Hemisphere undermines the security and stability of countries throughout the region, which directly threatens United States national security interests. The Cuban regime has for years exported its tactics of intimidation, repression, and violence. They’ve exported this to Venezuela in direct support of the former Maduro regime. Cuban military intelligence and state security services today keep Maduro in power.
Sadly, Cuba’s most prominent export these days is not cigars or rum; it’s oppression.
—Mike Pompeo, remarks to the press, state.gov, Apr. 17, 2019
Con Arguments
(Go to Pro Arguments)Con 1: The embargo has failed and harms Americans.
Signed in 1962, the Cuban embargo has not accomplished any of its goals in more than 60 years of implementation. Cuba has not adopted a representative democracy and poses no threat to the United States.
Cuba’s relationship with the Soviet Union during the Cold War raised concerns about U.S. national security, but that era is long over. The U.S.S.R. dissolved in 1991, and American foreign policy has adapted to the change in most aspects apart from the embargo. [67][68]
The U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency released a report in 1998 stating, “Cuba does not pose a significant military threat to the U.S. or to other countries in the region.” The embargo can no longer be justified by the fear of Communism spreading throughout the Western Hemisphere. [22]
Fidel Castro resigned his presidency in 2008 and abdicated his role as the leader of Cuba’s Communist Party in 2011 because of illness. His brother Raúl then stepped in to take his place, and in Apr. 2019 Vice President Miguel Díaz-Canel, a close Castro ally, was selected as president. If more than 50 years of sanctions have not toppled the Castro regime, there is no reason to think the embargo will ever work. [65][66][117]
Furthermore, the embargo harms the U.S. economy and Americans. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce opposes the embargo, saying that it costs the United States $1.2 billion annually in lost sales of exports. [19]
A study by the Cuba Policy Foundation, a nonprofit founded by former U.S. diplomats, estimates that the annual cost to the U.S. economy could be as high as $4.84 billion in agricultural exports and related economic output. “If the embargo were lifted, the average American farmer would feel a difference in his or her life within two to three years,” the study’s author said. [20]
A Mar. 2010 study by Texas A&M University calculated that removing the restrictions on agricultural exports and travel to Cuba could create as many as 6,000 jobs in the U.S. [19]
And nine U.S. governors released a letter on Oct. 14, 2015, urging Congress to lift the embargo. It stated, “Foreign competitors such as Canada, Brazil and the European Union are increasingly taking market share from U.S. industry [in Cuba], as these countries do not face the same restrictions on financing….Ending the embargo will create jobs here at home, especially in rural America, and will create new opportunities for U.S. agriculture.” [98]
Con 2: The embargo harms everyday Cubans, not the Cuban government.
Cubans are denied access to technology, medicine, affordable food, and other goods that could be available to them if the United States lifted the embargo.
The embargo prevents the people of Cuba from joining the digital age by cutting them off from technology, and it restricts the electronic flow of information to the island. Fewer than one in four Cubans accessed the internet in 2011. [15]
Though the Cuban government began permitting internet access in private homes in 2019, most access is too expensive for widespread use, costing residents about 26% of the average salary for what amounts to 7% of the average American’s internet data. And the government still controls legal access to the internet. [120]
A report by the American Association for World Health found that doctors in Cuba have access to less than 50% of the drugs on the world market and that food shortages led to a 33% drop in caloric intake between 1989 and 1993. The report states, “It is our expert medical opinion that the U.S. embargo has caused a significant rise in suffering—and even deaths—in Cuba.” [24]
Amnesty International reports that “treatments for children and young people with bone cancer…[and] antiretroviral drugs used to treat children with HIV/AIDS” were not readily available with the embargo in place, because “they were commercialized under U.S. patents.” [79]
In Apr. 2020 Cuba reported that the U.S. embargo was preventing the import of important medical supplies and equipment as well as other essentials. Cuban Foreign Minister Rodríguez tweeted that the embargo was “the main obstacle to purchase the medicines, equipment and material required to confront the [COVID 19] pandemic.” [118]
Cuban officials have not been forced to take responsibility for problems such as a failing health care system, lack of access to medicine, the decline of the sugar industry, decrepit plumbing systems, and water pollution, because they use the embargo as a scapegoat. The Cuban minister of foreign affairs reportedly blamed the embargo for a total of $1.66 billion in damage to the Cuban economy. [12]
President Clinton said in a 2000 interview, “Sometimes I think [Fidel Castro] doesn’t want the embargo lifted…, because as long as he can blame the United States, then he doesn’t have to answer to his own people for the failures of his economic policy.” [77]
Free trade, not the isolation of an embargo, can promote democracy in Cuba. And lifting the embargo would put pressure on Cuba to address problems that it had previously blamed on U.S. sanctions. Trading with China led to economic reforms that brought 100 million people above the poverty line and improved access to health care and education across the country. [76]
Con 3: The embargo is hypocritical. The United States should not have trading and travel policies for Cuba different from those for other countries with governments or policies it opposes.
The United States trades with China, Venezuela, and Vietnam despite their records of human rights violations. And President George W. Bush lifted trade sanctions on North Korea in 2008 amid concerns about that nation’s desire to develop nuclear weapons. [60]
Americans are permitted to travel to other communist countries, nations known for human rights violations, and even places on the list of “State Sponsors of Terrorism.” Citizens may go to countries like Burma, Iran, and North Korea if given a visa. There is no justification for singling out Cuba as the one nation in the world that is off-limits. [52][78]
Promoting democracy by prohibiting Americans from traveling to Cuba is hypocritical. Restricting American rights as a means of forcing another country to embrace freedom is insincere, as is demanding that Cuba adopt a representative democracy, given the long history of U.S. support for brutal dictatorships in countries that favored American interests, such as Hosni Mubarak in Egypt and Augusto Pinochet in Chile. [72]
The United States even backed the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista (who served as elected president from 1940 to 1944 and then as a U.S.-backed dictator from 1952 to 1958 before being overthrown by Fidel Castro)—someone known to have killed, tortured, and imprisoned political dissenters—because he was friendly to American interests. [73]
An opinion poll of more than 1,000 American adults found that 62% of respondents thought the United States should reestablish diplomatic relations with Cuba. Among Americans surveyed, 57% think that the travel ban to Cuba should be lifted, while only 27% think the ban should remain. Regarding the trade embargo, 51% of Americans want to open trade with Cuba, compared with 29% who do not. [2]
Most of the world opposes the embargo. Maintaining it is detrimental to the reputation of the United States in the international community. The United Nations has formally denounced the U.S. embargo on Cuba every year since 1991. In Nov. 2023, 187 countries in the U.N. General Assembly voted to condemn the U.S. policy. Only Israel sided with the United States, while Ukraine abstained from voting. [13][88][119][135]
Con Quotes
Senators Ron Wyden (D-OR), Cynthia M. Lummis (R-WY), and Chris Van Hollen (D-MD) stated,
The U.S. embargo against Cuba has failed. It has neither facilitated regime change, nor advanced any notable improvements in human rights, democracy or economic freedom in Cuba. Instead, the embargo has limited the U.S. government’s ability to advocate for U.S. interests in Cuba, stifled opportunities for American businesses, farmers and ranchers, and hurt both Americans and Cubans in Cuba….
To be clear, we continue to have serious concerns about the Cuban government’s repression of peaceful, pro-democracy advocacy. We strongly support [the Biden] Administration’s efforts to hold the Cuban government accountable for violations of human rights, civil rights and worker rights, including forced labor. That said, unilateral sanctions have not brought about democratic change. In contrast, they have arguably strengthened the Cuban government’s hand by acting as a readily available scapegoat for the Cuban government’s own political and economic failures. We believe that the thoughtful, targeted lifting of restrictions on trade and travel with Cuba would facilitate the development of a thriving private sector and increase the pressure on Cuba’s leaders to be more responsive to the Cuban people, while also increasing U.S. influence on the island.
—Ron Wyden, Cynthia M. Lummis, and Chris Van Hollen, Letter to President Biden, finance.senate.gov, Mar. 15, 2023
Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla, minister of foreign affairs of Cuba, stated,
The blockade causes incalculable humanitarian damages. It is a flagrant, massive and systematic violation of human rights and qualifies as an act of genocide under Articles 2 (b) and (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948. There is not a single Cuban family that has not endured its consequences.…
The U.S. government does not have the least moral authority to criticize Cuba or any other country when it comes to human rights. We reject the reiterated manipulation of human rights with political purposes as well as the double standards that characterize it.
The United States is a country where human rights are violated in a systematic—and many a time flagrant—way.…The U.S. is a party to only 30 per cent of the human rights instruments and does not recognize the right to life, peace, development, security, food or the rights of boys and girls.
—Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla, “Statement by H.E. Mr. Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Cuba, on Agenda Item 39, ‘Necessity of Ending the Economic, Commercial and Financial Blockade Imposed by the United States of America Against Cuba.’ ” New York, November 7, 2019,” cubadiplomatica.ca, Nov. 7, 2019
Kevin J. Fandl, assistant professor of legal studies and strategic global management at Temple University, stated,
U.S. economic sanctions on Cuba have been in place for nearly seven decades. The stated intent of those sanctions—to restore democracy and freedom to Cuba—is still used as a justification for maintaining harsh restrictions, despite the fact that the Castro regime remains in power with widespread Cuban public support. Starving the Cuban people of economic opportunities under the shadow of sanctions has significantly limited entrepreneurship and economic development on the island, despite a highly educated and motivated population. The would-be political reformers and leaders on the island emigrate, thanks to generous U.S. immigration policies toward Cubans, leaving behind the Castro regime and its ardent supporters. Real change on the island will come only if the United States allows Cuba to restart its economic engine and reengage with global markets. Though not a guarantee of political reform, economic development is correlated with demand for political change, giving the economic development approach more potential than failed economic sanctions.…I argue that Cuba has survived in spite of the U.S. economic embargo and that dismantling the embargo in favor of open trade policies would improve the likelihood of Cuba becoming a market-friendly communist country like China. I present the avenues available today for trade with Cuba under the shadow of the economic embargo, and I argue that real political change will require a leap of faith by the United States through removal of the embargo and support for Cuba’s economic development.
—Kevin J. Fandl, “Trading with the Enemy: Opening the Door to U.S. Investment in Cuba,” Georgetown Journal of International Law, law.georgetown.edu, 2018
Discussion Questions
- Should the United States maintain the embargo against Cuba? Why or why not?
- Should other countries consider imposing an embargo against Cuba? Why or why not?
- Should the United States impose embargoes against other countries? Consider China, Russia, Iran, and others. Explain your answer.
Take Action
- Analyze the economic impact of ending the embargo at Investopedia.
- Explore the U.S. Department of State’s sanctions on Cuba.
- Consider a history of the embargo at the Council on Foreign Relations.
- Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? If so, how? List two to three ways. If your thoughts have not changed, list two to three ways your better understanding of the other side of the issue now helps you better argue your position.
- Push for the position and policies you support by writing U.S. senators and representatives.
Sources
- Peter Brookes, “Keep the Embargo, O,” Heritage Foundation, heritage.org, Apr. 16, 2009
- Angus Reid, “Most Americans Willing to Re-establish Ties with Cuba,” angus-reid.com, Feb. 6, 2012
- Tony Karon, “Do We Really Need an Embargo Against Cuba?,” Time, Apr. 21, 2010
- Tony Karon, “Do We Really Need an Embargo Against Cuba?,” Time, Apr. 21, 2010
- Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, “Fifty Years Later, Cuban Embargo Demonstrates US Solidarity with Cuban People,” foreignaffairs.house.gov, Feb. 7, 2012
- “Cuban Democracy Act,” Oct. 23, 1992
- Elizardo Sánchez and Carlos J. Menéndez, “Comisión Cubana de Derechos Humanos y Reconciliación Nacional,” cubanet.org, June 14, 2012
- Mark Silva and Tracy Wilkinson, “Obama Allows Unlimited Travel to Cuba by Relatives,” Los Angeles Times, Apr. 14, 2009
- U.S. Department of State, “State Sponsors of Terrorism,” state.gov (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- US Department of State, “Chapter 3: State Sponsors of Terrorism,” state.gov, July 31, 2012
- The White House, “Open for Questions with President Obama,” whitehouse.gov, Sep. 28, 2011
- Oscar Espinosa Chepe, “Nuevamente el Show del Embargo,” cubaencuentro.com, Sep. 25, 2012
- AFP, “Record Vote for UN Resolution Against Cuba Embargo,” google.com, Nov. 30, 2012
- Merco Press, “Tourism Second Largest Contributor to Cuban Economy; 2.7 Million Expected in 2011,” en.mercopress.com, Aug. 10, 2011
- Marc Frank, “More Cubans Have Local Intranet, Mobile Phones,” reuters.com, June 15, 2012
- Andrea Rodriguez, “Cuba Criticizes Microsoft Blocking Messenger,” news.smh.com.au, May 30, 2009
- AFP, “Citing Sanctions, Google Blocks Analytics Tool in Cuba,” afp.com, June 20, 2012
- BBC, “Pope Benedict Criticises US Trade Embargo on Cuba,” bbc.co.uk, Mar. 28, 2012
- U.S. Chamber of Commerce, “International Agenda: Oppose Unilateral Economic Sanctions,” uschamber.com (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Cuba Policy Foundation, “America’s Farmers Bearing Heavy Burden for U.S. Embargo Against Cuba: New Report,” cubafoundation.org, Jan. 28, 2002
- John Hughes, “ ‘Spring’ Delayed as Cuba Follows China’s Model,” Christian Science Monitor, Apr. 9, 2012
- Bill Clinton, “State on Signing the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996,” presidency.ucsb.edu, Mar. 12, 1996
- Defense Intelligence Agency, “The Cuban Threat to U.S. National Security,” fas.org, Nov. 18, 1997
- American Association for World Health, “Denial of Food and Medicine: The Impact of the U.S. Embargo on the Health and Nutrition in Cuba,” cubasolidarity.net, Mar. 1997
- Guillermo Grenier, “Panther Voices: Sentiment Toward Cuba Embargo Changing as Community Changes,” news.fiu.edu, Feb. 10, 2012
- Cuban Research Institute, “2011 Cuba Poll,” cri.fiu.edu, 2011
- Carol J. Williams, “Widely Condemned U.S. Policy on Cuba Unlikely to Change Soon,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 16, 2012
- Robert Wright, Three Nights in Havana: Pierre Trudeau, Fidel Castro and the Cold War World, 2010
- Ann Louise Bardach, “How Cuban Repression Benefits Fidel Castro,” Toronto Star, June 22, 2003
- Michael Hutchison, “The U.S. Trade Embargo on Cuba: Lesson Plan,” pbs.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Natasha Del Toro, “Before the Revolution,” smithsonianmag.com, Aug. 1, 2007
- History Channel, “Fidel Castro,” history.com (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, “The Bay of Pigs,” jfklibrary.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Graham Allison, “The Cuban Missile Crisis at 50: Lessons for U.S. Foreign Policy Today,” foreignaffairs.com, July/Aug. 2012
- John F. Kennedy, “Proclamation 3447—Embargo on All Trade with Cuba,” presidency.ucsb.edu, Feb. 3, 1962
- Department of the Treasury, “Cuban Assets Control Regulations,” gpo.gov, Dec. 3, 2012
- Humberto Corzo, “Lift the Cuba Embargo?,” cubanet.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Pierre Salinger, “Great Moments: Kennedy, Cuba and Cigars,” Cigar Aficionado, Autumn 1982
- United States Diplomacy Center, “U.S. Interests Section Havana, Cuba,” diplomacy.state.gov (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Guillermo Martinez and Helga Silva, “Carter Aides, Cubans Met Secretly,” Miami Herald, Oct. 12, 1981
- Aileen S. Yoo, “The Mariel Boatlift,” The Washington Post, Dec. 1998
- John Adams and David W. Jones, “Is Cuba a State Sponsor of Terrorism? Let’s Get Real, State Department,” thehill.com, Mar. 21, 2012
- Oracle ThinkQuest, “The Soviet Union,” library.thinkquest.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- PBS Now, “Cuba/United States Timeline,” pbs.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Global Edge, “Cuba: Economy,” globaledge.msu.edu (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Hartford Courant, “A More Realistic Policy Toward Cuba,” Hartford Courant, Oct. 13, 1995
- Taylor Branch, The Clinton Tapes: Wrestling History with the President, 2009
- United States Code, “Cuba Democracy Act (‘CDA’),” treasury.gov (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- One Hundred Fourth Congress of the United States of America, “Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996,” gpo.gov, Jan. 3, 1996
- PBS, “Cuban Discord and Helms-Burton,” pbs.org, July 19, 1996
- Stephanie Hanson, “U.S.-Cuba Relations,” cfr.org, Jan. 11, 2010
- Cuba Study Group, “Lifting Restrictions on Travel and Remittances to Cuba: A Case for Unilateral Action,” studygroup.org, Dec. 10, 2008
- Glassbooth.org, “Barack Obama on Cuba Embargo,” youtube.com, Feb. 20, 2008
- White House Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks by the President in an ‘Open for Questions’ Roundtable,” whitehouse.gov, Sep. 28, 2011
- Doug Bandow, “Time to End the Cuba Embargo,” cato.org, Dec. 11, 2012
- Ginger Thompson, “Restrictions on Travel to Cuba Are Eased,” The New York Times, Jan. 14, 2011
- Andrew Quinn, “Castro’s Sabotage Ending U.S. Cuba Embargo: Clinton,” reuters.com, Apr. 9, 2010
- Ronald D. Godard, “Explanation of Vote by Ambassador Ronald D. Godard, U.S. Senior Advisor for Western Hemisphere Affairs, on the Cuba Resolution in the General Assembly Hall,” usun.state.gov, Nov. 13, 2012
- Jaime Suchlicki, “Don’t Lift the Cuba Travel Ban,” frontpagemag.com, Apr. 11, 2007
- AP, “Bush: U.S. to Lift Key North Korea Sanctions,” msnbc.com, June 26, 2008
- Nick Miroff, “U.S. Travel to Cuba Grows as Restrictions Are Eased,” npr.org, Feb. 6, 2012
- Amy Maness, “Should We Trade with Cuba?,” ncpa.org, Jan. 14, 2003
- GlobalSecurity.org, “Cuba’s Economy,” globalsecurity.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- Richard E. Feinberg, “The New Cuban Economy: What Roles for Foreign Investment,” brookings.edu, Dec. 2012
- Morgan Neill, Pam Benson, and Shasta Darlington, “Cuba Quiet After Castro Announces Resignation,” edition.cnn.com, Feb. 19, 2008
- Robert Johnson, “End of an Era: Castro Resigns from Party Leadership and Calls for Liberalization,” businessinsider.com, Apr. 19, 2011
- Alain-Pierre Hovasse, “20 Years Since the Fall of the Soviet Union,” The Atlantic, Dec. 23, 2011
- Brandon Amash, “Evaluating the Cuban Embargo,” prospectjournal.org, July 23, 2012
- Office of Foreign Assets Control, “Cuba: What You Need to Know about US Sanctions Against Cuba,” Jan. 24, 2012
- Cuba Policy Foundation, “History of US Policy,” cubafoundation.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations with Cuba,” state.gov, June 21, 2012
- Ryan Villarreal, “Chile’s Own 9/11: When the U.S. Backed a Brutal Dictator,” International Business Times, Sep. 11, 2012
- Mayra Gómez, Human Rights in Cuba, El Salvador, and Nicaragua: A Sociological Perspective on Human Rights Abuse, 2003
- Phil Davison, “Cuba’s American Refugees,” independent.co.uk, May 2, 1998
- Peter Orsi, “Castro: Obama Is ‘Stupid,’ ” huffingtonpost.com, Sep. 29, 2011
- Amy Maness, “Should We Trade with Cuba?,” ncpathinktank.org, Jan. 14, 2003
- Bill Clinton, “Bill Clinton on Sanctions with Cuba,” interview by Amy Goodman, globalpolicy,org, Nov. 8, 2000
- Nick Mirodd, “U.S. Travel to Cuba Grows as Restrictions Are Eased,” npr.org, Feb. 6, 2012
- Amnesty International, “Annual Report 2011: Cuba,” amnesty.org (accessed Dec. 19, 2012)
- PBS, “Transcript: Distant Neighbors,” pbs.org, Sep. 20, 2002
- Nick Miroff, “For Alan Gross, It’s Hard Time in Havana,” globalpost.com, Nov. 28, 2012
- Ruth Ellen Wasem, “Cuban Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends,” Congressional Research Service, fas.org, June 2, 2009
- George Gedda, “Diplomat Recalls Cuba Break in 1961,” Associated Press, fiu.edu, Jan. 1, 2001
- Frances Robles, “Cuba Keeps More Political Prisoners per Capita,” Associated Press, freerepublic.com, July 8, 2007
- Joint Corporate Committee on Cuban Claims, “Understanding US Claims,” certifiedcubanclaims.org (accessed Dec. 20, 2012)
- Reuters, “Cuban Commission for Human Rights and National Reconciliation: Political Detentions Rose in 2012,” thecubaneconomy.com, Jan. 3, 2013
- NorthStar News and Analysis, “U.S. Leads World in Rate of Incarceration,” thenorthstarnews.com, Apr. 30, 2013
- Peter James Spielmann, “UN General Assembly Votes Against US Cuba Embargo,” Associated Press, Oct. 29, 2013
- BBC, “Cuban President Raul Castro to Retire in 2018,” bbc.co.uk, Feb. 24, 2013
- Peter Baker, “U.S. and Cuba, in Breakthrough, Will Resume Diplomatic Relations,” The New York Times, Dec. 17, 2014
- Barack Obama, “Charting a New Course on Cuba,” whitehouse.gov, July 1, 2015
- Halimah Abdullah, “Obama Announces Embassy Deal with Cuba,” MSNBC.com, July 1, 2015
- Oren Dorell, “Cuban Flag Flies at Embassy in Washington,” USA Today, July 20, 2015
- Halimah Abdullah, “American Flag Flies at Embassy in Cuba for First Time Since 1961,” nbcnews.com, Aug. 14, 2015
- Fox News Latino, “Cuba Arrests 90 Dissidents During Peaceful March; ‘It’s All [Obama’s] Fault,’ Protesters Say,” latino.foxnews.com, Aug. 10, 2015
- Elliott Abrams, “John Kerry, George Shultz, and the Kerry Visit to Cuba,” cfr.org, Aug. 6, 2015
- Nat Hentoff, “Normalizing U.S. Relations with Cuba Leads to Escalation in Repression of Cuban Dissidents,” cato.org, Oct. 7, 2015
- Agencia EFE, “Nine U.S. Governors Ask Congressional Leaders to End Cuban Embargo,” latino.foxnews.com, Oct. 15, 2015
- Michelle Hackman, “Barack Obama Will Be the First Sitting President to Visit Cuba in 88 Years,” vox.com, Feb. 18, 2016
- Merrit Kennedy, “First U.S.-Cuba Commercial Flight in More Than 50 Years Has Landed,” npr.org, Aug. 31, 2016
- Alan Gomez, “Obama Lifts Restrictions on Cuban Rum, Cigars,” usatoday, Oct. 14, 2016
- Merrit Kennedy, “For First Time, U.S. Abstains on U.N. Resolution Criticizing Cuba Embargo,” npr.org, Oct. 26, 2016
- Barack Obama, “Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy,” whitehouse.gov, Jan. 12, 2017
- Donald Trump, “President Trump Speaks and Participates in a Signing on the United States’ Policy Towards Cuba,” whitehouse.gov, June 16, 2017
- White House, “Fact Sheet on Cuba Policy,” whitehouse.gov, June 16, 2017
- U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Treasury, Commerce, and State Implement Changes to the Cuba Sanctions Rules,” treasury.gov, Nov. 8, 2017
- White House, “President Donald J. Trump Is Taking a Stand for Democracy and Human Rights in the Western Hemisphere,” whitehouse.gov, Apr. 17, 2019
- U.S. Department of State, “United States Restricts Travel and Vessels to Cuba,” state.gov, June 4, 2019
- U.S. Embassy Havana, “United States Restricts Scheduled Air Service to Cuban Airports,” cu.usembassy.gov, Oct. 25, 2019
- Patrick Oppmann and Maegan Vazquez, “With an Eye on a Tight Florida Race, Trump Announces New Restrictions on Cuban Hotels, Cigars, and Rum,” cnn.com, Sep. 23, 2020
- Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2020: Cuba Events of 2019,” hrw.org, 2020
- Congressional Research Service, “Cuba: U.S. Policy in the 116th Congress,” fas.org, May 15, 2020
- Carmen Sesin, “Majority of Cuban Americans Don’t Think Embargo Works, but There’s Slight Increase in Support,” nbcnews.com, Jan. 10, 2019
- U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports on Terrorism 2019: Cuba,” state.gov, 2019
- Matt Spetalnick, “Exclusive: U.S. Considers Returning Cuba to List of State Sponsors of Terrorism—Source,” reuters.com, May 14, 2020
- Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2019: Cuba Events of 2018” hrw.org, 2020
- Patrick Oppmann, “Cuba’s National Assembly Announces Miguel Diaz-Canel as New President,” cnn.com, Apr. 19, 2018
- Carmen Sesin, “Cuba Says U.S. Embargo Is ‘Obstacle’ to Getting Coronavirus-Fighting Supplies. Not So, Says U.S.,” nbcnews.com, Apr. 11, 2020
- Edith M. Lederer, “UN Votes Overwhelmingly to Condemn US Embargo on Cuba,” apnews.com, Nov. 7, 2019
- Morgan Babbs, “Robin Hoods of Internet Access in Cuba,” medium.com, June 30, 2020
- Brandon Conradis, “Trump Administration Names Cuba a ‘State Sponsor of Terrorism,’ ” thehill.com, Jan. 11, 2021
- Patrick Oppmann and Tatiana Arias, “Cubans Take to Streets in Rare Protests over Lack of Freedoms and Worsening Economy,” cnn.com, July 13, 2021
- Patrick Oppmann, “After Historic Protests, Defiant Cubans Face Mass Trials,” cnn.com, July 29, 2021
- Ernesto Londoño and Frances Robles, “Biden Ramps Up Pressure on Cuba, Abandoning Obama’s Approach,” nytimes.com, Aug. 9, 2021
- White House, “Statement by President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. on Continuing Crackdown in Cuba,” whitehouse.gov, July 22, 2021
- Patrick Oppmann, Marlon Sorto, and Valentina Di Donato, “Cuba’s Anti-government Protesters Sentenced Up to 30 Years Behind Bars,” cnn.com, Mar. 17, 2022
- Maria Abi-Habib and Eileen Sullivan, “Cuban Migrants Arrive to U.S. in Record Numbers, on Foot, Not by Boat,” nytimes.com, May 3, 2022
- Franco Ordoñez, “Biden Eases Restrictions on Cuban Travel and Remittances,” npr.org, May. 16, 2022
- Reuters, “US Lifts Cuba Flight Restrictions Imposed Under Trump,” cnn.com, June 2, 2022
- Juan Carlos Albizu-Campos Espiñeira and Sergio Díaz-Briquets, “Cuba and Its Emigration: Exit as Voice,” horizontecubano.law.columbia.edu, Mar. 10, 2023
- Reuters, “U.N. Votes to End US Embargo on Cuba; US and Israel Oppose,” reuters.com, Nov. 2, 2023
- Human Rights Watch, “World Report 2022: Cuba,” hrw.org (accessed Nov. 30, 2023)
- Human Rights Watch, “Prison or Exile: Cuba’s Systematic Repression of July 2021 Demonstrators,” hrw.org, July 11, 2022
- U.S. Department of State, “State Sponsors of Terrorism,” state.gov (accessed Nov. 30, 2023)
- UN News, “General Assembly Votes Overwhelmingly Against U.S. Cuba Embargo,” news.un.org, Nov. 2, 2023