Persistence of Lamarckism
By the 1930s the inheritance of acquired characteristics had been rejected by most students of heredity, though belief in it persisted in popular and in some literary circles. Indeed, as late as 1955 British biologist Cyril Darlington called it the “evergreen superstition.” Lamarckism seems to be able to last indefinitely on the folklore level, but as a serious scientific hypothesis it has been abandoned. In about 1948 Lamarckism was revived rather violently by the Communist authorities in the U.S.S.R., and it became a part of the official biology.
Lamarckism in politics
Both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were staunch Lamarckians and assumed that this type of inheritance would guarantee the future improvement of the human race. Thus any Soviet biologist who endorsed the doctrine was in a strong tactical position in the socialist competition for status. From 1936 to 1948 a prolonged and bitter scientific controversy raged in the Soviet Union. The final ruling on the dispute was a boon to the Communist theoreticians—the Lamarckians were completely victorious. At the famous meeting of the Lenin Agricultural Academy in 1948, the party line in genetics and evolution was drawn, and Lamarckism, as part of the Soviet or Michurinist school, became official. Mendelism was denounced, and Trofim Lysenko, the proponent of Michurinism, became the dictator of Soviet biology. A number of Communists in Western Europe followed the Soviet directives and sought to rehabilitate Lamarckism. During the next decade the discussions of Lamarckism were political rather than scientific, and a great deal of confusion was naturally introduced into the subject, some of it perhaps intentionally. A number of the published polemics were intellectually dishonest, and the situation grew so bad that the American Institute of Biological Sciences had to protest against the widespread misquoting of Western biologists (1949).
In 1965, however, the Soviet line changed. Lysenko had denounced Mendelian inheritance as reactionary and capitalistic and as being completely incompatible with Michurinism. Professional biologists outside of the Communist bloc accepted neither the validity nor the honesty of his reported discoveries, and this fact ultimately influenced the Soviet authorities. Early in 1965, shortly after the demotion of Nikita Khrushchev, who had endorsed and supported Lysenko’s Lamarckism, Lysenko lost his dominant position in biology in the Soviet Union. Mendelism was revived, and Russian geneticists were again free to publish their findings unhindered by the official line. Mendel had presented his famous paper to a local scientific society in Brno in 1865, and, on the 100th anniversary of its presentation, the Czechoslovak Academy of Science held the Mendel Memorial Symposium. Some 800 scientists attended from both the Communist and non-Communist countries. In the scientific sessions, many geneticists presented papers, but none of the papers followed the Lysenko line. Thus the Communist revival of Lamarckism came to an end.
Lamarckism in science
Lamarck had pictured the bodily characteristics, modified by an animal’s activities, as being passed on to future generations. Weismann showed that in animals the body (soma) and germ cells are separate, that only the germ cells produce the next generation, and that, consequently, all such modifications in the higher animals have to be transmitted from the soma of one generation to its germ plasm and then on to the soma of the succeeding generation. In unicellular organisms, where there is no separation of soma and germ plasm, Lamarckism, as it is understood in the higher forms, cannot apply. Induced changes in the germ plasm are known to be inheritable. Thus, in bacteria and protozoans, acquired modifications would be expected to be inherited. These induced hereditary alterations are of several different types. It was perhaps inevitable that this kind of inheritance would be cited by some as evidence of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. In the 1950s, spectacular advances in the genetics of bacteria and protozoa, the discovery of the importance of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the machinery of heredity, and the intensification of work on cytoplasmic inheritance made it essential that Lamarckism be understood accurately and precisely.
In a number of papers, Victor Jollos showed that environmentally produced changes in Paramecium could continue through several cell generations, even in the absence of the causative agent, but that under certain conditions they would disappear by stages or even in a single generation. These induced alterations were called dauermodification. In 1948 Milislav Demerec subjected bacteria to several antibiotics and discovered resistant strains that owed their viability to specific gene mutations. Some of the mutants actually became dependent upon the antibiotic that destroyed their nonmutant competitors. If these mutants were produced by the antibiotic itself, this would approach very closely to directed mutations. However, analyses of similar cases (virus sensitivity and virus resistance in bacteria) by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück (1943) showed that this was probably not the case. Demerec also concluded that in his experiment mutations conferring resistance were present before the treatment. M. Cohen (1958) induced changes in the enzyme system of the colon bacillus (E. coli) that seemed to last indefinitely (150 cell generations), even though there appeared to have been no change in the nuclear apparatus. The work of Tracy Sonneborn (1947), John R. Preer (1948, 1950), and others has shown that changes in the cytoplasm of a protozoan (Paramecium) can be transmitted through a number of generations.
The proof of a sexual process in certain bacteria was given by Edward Tatum and Joshua Lederberg (1947), and the discovery of the role of DNA in the mechanism of heredity has clarified a number of puzzles in the induced and transmissible alterations in bacteria. Alfred Hershey and Raquel Rotman (1949) showed that even virus particles that attack bacteria (bacteriophages) can exchange, segregate, and recombine their hereditary factors and can act as carriers of hereditary material (genes) from one strain of bacteria to another. The fact that characteristics can be shifted from one bacterial strain to another via the bacteriophages—and without the usual fusion of gametes that had always been considered the essential of sexual reproduction—has been cited as an instance of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. However, no transmission of a purely bodily modification in a higher animal or plant has ever been verified.
The social evolution of humankind has obviously come about by the transmission of the experience of one generation to the next by means of oral and written instruction. Popular thinking has been so saturated with this point of view that it was natural to extend it to the bodily structures and behaviour of lower animals. Instincts have, in fact, been sometimes defined as inherited habits, which implies the Lamarckian theory. Experience has shown, however, that it is unwise to apply the evidence from one domain to another where an entirely different set of relations is known to exist.