Ptolemaic system

Ptolemaic system, mathematical model of the universe formulated by the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Ptolemy about 150 CE and recorded by him in his Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses. The Ptolemaic system is a geocentric cosmology; that is, it starts by assuming that Earth is stationary and at the centre of the universe. The “natural” expectation for ancient societies was that the heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, planets, and stars) must travel in uniform motion along the most “perfect” path possible, a circle. However, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets as observed from Earth are not circular. Ptolemy’s model explained this “imperfection” by postulating that the apparently irregular movements were a combination of several regular circular motions seen in perspective from a stationary Earth. The principles of this model were known to earlier Greek scientists, including the mathematician Hipparchus (c. 150 bce), but they culminated in an accurate predictive model with Ptolemy. The resulting Ptolemaic system persisted, with minor adjustments, until Earth was displaced from the centre of the universe in the 16th and 17th centuries by the Copernican system and by Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

The first principle of the Ptolemaic model is eccentric motion. A body traveling at uniform speed on a circular path with Earth at its centre will sweep out equal angles in equal times from a terrestrial perspective. However, if the path’s centre is displaced from Earth, the body will sweep out equal angles in unequal times (again, from a terrestrial perspective), moving slowest when farthest from Earth (apogee) and fastest when nearest Earth (perigee). With this simple eccentric model Ptolemy explained the Sun’s varying motion through the zodiac. Another version of the model, suitable for the Moon, had the direction of the line from apogee to perigee gradually shift.

In order to explain the motion of the planets, Ptolemy combined eccentricity with an epicyclic model. In the Ptolemaic system each planet revolves uniformly along a circular path (epicycle), the centre of which revolves around Earth along a larger circular path (deferent). Because one half of an epicycle runs counter to the general motion of the deferent path, the combined motion will sometimes appear to slow down or even reverse direction (retrograde). By carefully coordinating these two cycles, the epicyclic model explained the observed phenomenon of planets retrograding when at perigee. Ptolemy enhanced the effect of eccentricity by making the epicycle’s centre sweep out equal angles along the deferent in equal times as seen from a point that he called the equant. The centre of the deferent was located midway between the equant and Earth, as can be seen in the figure.

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Although the Ptolemaic system successfully accounted for planetary motion, Ptolemy’s equant point was controversial. Some Islamic astronomers objected to such an imaginary point, and later Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) objected for philosophical reasons to the notion that an elementary rotation in the heavens could have a varying speed—and added further circles to the models to achieve the same effect. Nevertheless, the equant would eventually lead Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) to the correct elliptical model as expressed by his laws of planetary motion.

Ptolemy believed that the heavenly bodies’ circular motions were caused by their being attached to unseen revolving solid spheres. For example, an epicycle would be the “equator” of a spinning sphere lodged in the space between two spherical shells surrounding Earth. He discovered that if he represented the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five known planets with spheres, he could nest them inside one another with no empty space left over and in such a manner that the solar and lunar distances agreed with his calculations. (His estimate of the Moon’s distance was roughly correct, but his figure for the solar distance was only about a twentieth of the correct value.) The largest sphere, known as the celestial sphere, contained the stars and, at a distance of 20,000 times Earth’s radius, formed the limit of Ptolemy’s universe.

Through Islamic astronomers, Ptolemy’s nested spheres became a standard feature of medieval cosmology. When Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model—with Earth and the planets all orbiting the Sun—he was compelled to abandon the notion that there is no empty space between the spheres. After Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) demonstrated that the comet of 1577 would have had to pass through several of these invisible spheres, the hypothesis of solid spheres also became untenable.