aging
- Related Topics:
- human aging
- menopause
- old age
- middle age
- crow’s feet
aging, progressive physiological changes in an organism that lead to senescence, or a decline of biological functions and of the organism’s ability to adapt to metabolic stress.
Aging takes place in a cell, an organ, or the total organism with the passage of time. It is a process that goes on over the entire adult life span of any living thing. Gerontology, the study of the aging process, is devoted to the understanding and control of all factors contributing to the finitude of individual life. It is not concerned exclusively with debility, which looms so large in human experience, but deals with a much wider range of phenomena. Every species has a life history in which the individual life span has an appropriate relationship to the reproductive life span and to the mechanism of reproduction and the course of development. How these relationships evolved is as germane to gerontology as it is to evolutionary biology. It is also important to distinguish between the purely physicochemical processes of aging and the accidental organismic processes of disease and injury that lead to death.
Gerontology, therefore, can be defined as the science of the finitude of life as expressed in the three aspects of longevity, aging, and death, examined in both evolutionary and individual (ontogenetic) perspective. Longevity is the span of life of an organism. Aging is the sequential or progressive change in an organism that leads to an increased risk of debility, disease, and death. Senescence consists of these manifestations of the aging process.
The viability (survival ability) of a population is characterized in two actuarial functions: the survivorship curve and the age-specific death rate, or Gompertz function. The relation of such factors as aging characteristics, constitutional vigour, physical factors, diet, and exposure to disease-causing organisms to the actuarial functions is complex. There is, nevertheless, no substitute for them as measures of the aging process and of the effect of environmental or genetic modifiers.
The age-specific mortality rate is the most informative actuarial function for investigations of the aging process. It was first pointed out by an English actuary, Benjamin Gompertz, in 1825 that the mortality rate increases in geometric progression—i.e., by a constant ratio in successive equal age intervals. Hence, a straight line, known as the Gompertz function, results when death rates are plotted on a logarithmic (ratio) scale. The prevalence of many diseases and disabilities rises in the same geometrical manner as does the mortality rate, important exceptions being some infectious diseases and diseases arising from disturbances of the immunological system. Although the life tables of most species are remarkably similar in form, even closely related species can differ markedly in the relative incidence of the major causes of death.
For humans in industrialized countries, life expectancy has increased significantly. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, life expectancy in those countries was between 30 and 45 years. At the century’s close, life expectancy averaged about 67 years, thanks in large part to improvements in health care, nutrition, and standards of living. In the early 21st century, demographic projections suggested that life expectancy for men and women who maintained the healthiest lifestyle patterns would continue to increase. In the first decade of the 21st century in the United States, centenarians—those who live to age 100 or older—were the fastest-growing segment of the population.
Biological theories of aging
Aging has many facets. Hence, there are a number of theories, each of which may explain one or more aspects of aging. There is, however, no single theory that explains all of the phenomena of aging.
Genetic theories
One theory of aging assumes that the life span of a cell or organism is genetically determined—that the genes of an animal contain a “program” that determines its life span, just as eye colour is determined genetically. This theory finds support in the fact that people with parents who have lived long lives are likely to live long themselves. Also, identical twins have life spans more similar in length than do non-twin siblings.
The genetic theory of aging centres on telomeres, which are repeated segments of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) occurring at the ends of chromosomes. The number of repeats in a telomere determines the maximum life span of a cell, since each time a cell divides, multiple repeats are lost. Once telomeres have been reduced to a certain size, the cell reaches a crisis point and is prevented from dividing further. As a consequence, the cell dies.
Research has shown that telomeres are vulnerable to genetic factors that alter an organism’s rate of aging. In humans, variations in a gene known as TERC (telomerase RNA [ribonucleic acid] component), which encodes an RNA segment of an enzyme known as telomerase, have been associated with reduced telomere length and an increased rate of biological aging. Telomerase normally functions to prevent the overshortening of telomeres, but in the presence of TERC mutations the enzyme’s activity is altered. TERC also appears to influence the telomere length that individuals possess from the time of birth. Persons who carry TERC variations are believed to be several years older biologically compared with noncarriers of the same chronological age. This accelerated rate of biological aging is likely also influenced by exposure to environmental factors, such as smoking and obesity, which increase a carrier’s susceptibility to the onset of age-related diseases relatively early in adult life.
Mutations of genes that affect telomere length lend support to another genetic theory of aging, which assumes that cell death is the result of “errors” introduced in the formation of key proteins, such as enzymes. Slight differences induced in the transmission of information from DNA molecules of the chromosomes through RNA molecules (the “messenger” substance) to the proper assembly of the large and complex enzyme molecules could result in a molecule of the enzyme that would not “work” properly. This is precisely what happens in the instance of mutations in the TERC gene. Such mutations disrupt the normal function of the telomerase enzyme.
As cells grow and divide, a small proportion of them undergo mutation. This change in the genetic code is then reproduced when the cells again divide. The “somatic mutation” theory of aging assumes that aging is due to the gradual accumulation of mutated cells that do not perform normally.
Nongenetic theories
Other theories of aging focus attention on factors that can influence the expression of a genetically determined “program.” These theories all attempt to explain aging in terms of cellular and molecular changes. Actually, age changes are much more marked in the overall performance of an individual than in cellular processes that can be measured. The age decrement in the ability to perform muscular work is much greater than any changes that can be detected in the enzyme activities of the muscles that perform the work. It is possible that aging in an individual is actually due to a breakdown in the control mechanisms that are required in a complex performance. Aging could also be the result of an accumulation in cells of damaging reactive molecules produced as byproducts of day-to-day cellular activities, such as cellular respiration. Other nongenetic theories consider aging as a complex psychosociological process.
Wear-and-tear theory
The “wear-and-tear” theory assumes that animals and cells, like machines, simply wear out. Animals, however, unlike machines, have some ability to repair themselves, so that this theory does not fit the facts of a biological system. A corollary to the wear-and-tear theory is the presumption that waste products accumulate within cells and interfere with function. The accumulation of highly insoluble particles, known as “age pigments,” has been observed in muscle cells in the heart and nerve cells of humans and other animals.
Cross-linking theory
With increasing age, tendons, skin, and even blood vessels lose elasticity. This is due to the formation of cross-links between or within the molecules of collagen (a fibrous protein) that give elasticity to these tissues. The “cross-linking” theory of aging assumes that similar cross-links form in other biologically important molecules, such as enzymes. These cross-links could alter the structure and shape of the enzyme molecules so that they are unable to carry out their functions in the cell.
Autoimmune theory
Another theory of aging assumes that immune reactions, normally directed against disease-producing organisms as well as foreign proteins or tissue, begin to attack cells of the individual’s own body. In other words, the system that produces antibodies loses its ability to distinguish between “self” and foreign proteins. This “autoimmune” theory of aging is based on clinical rather than on experimental evidence.
theory
“Glycation” theory suggests that glucose acts as a mediator of aging. Glycation, in which simple sugars (e.g., glucose) bind to molecules such as proteins and lipids, has a profound cumulative effect during life. Such effects may be similar to the elevated glucose levels and shorter life spans observed in diabetic humans.
Oxidative damage theory
Reactions that take place within cells can result in the oxidation of proteins and other cellular molecules. Oxidation entails the loss of electrons from these molecules, causing them to become unstable and highly reactive and leading to their eventual reaction with and damage of cell components such as membranes. Such reactive molecules are known as free radicals—any atom or molecule that has a single unpaired electron in an outer shell.
Oxidative damage (oxidative stress) accumulates with age, and this has given rise to the free radical theory of aging, which is concerned in particular with molecules known as reactive oxygen species (ROS). This theory was first proposed in the 1950s by American gerontologist Denham Harman and was supported in part by evidence that antioxidant proteins, which neutralize free radicals, are more abundant in aging cells, indicating a response to oxidative stress.
The initial free radical theory of aging was later extended to include ROS derived from cellular organelles known as mitochondria, which are the primary sites of energy production in most eukaryotic organisms (eukaryotic cells are cells with clearly defined nuclei). The mitochondrial theory of aging was based on the idea that there exists within mitochondria a vicious oxidation cycle, in which the mutation of mitochondrial DNA impairs the function of proteins in the organelle’s respiration machinery, thereby enhancing the production of DNA-damaging oxygen radicals. This in turn results in the accumulation of mutations in mitochondrial DNA and a bioenergetic impairment, characterized by the failure of mitochondria to produce sufficient energy for cells to carry out their daily activities, which leads to tissue dysfunction and degeneration.
A similar mitochondrial theory of aging proposes a mechanism in which electrons leaking from the electron transport chain (ETC), the central component of the organelle’s respiration machinery, produce ROS and then damage ETC proteins and mitochondrial DNA, leading to further increases in intracellular ROS levels and a decline in mitochondrial function.
Another consideration is the molecular inflammatory theory of aging, whereby the activation of redox- (oxidation-reduction-) sensitive transcription factors (molecules that control gene activity) by age-related oxidative stress causes increased expression of proinflammatory genes, leading to inflammation in various tissues. This inflammatory cascade is exaggerated during aging and has been linked to many age-associated pathologies, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and several neurodegenerative diseases. Chronic inflammation, whether due to diet, infection, stress, or other factors, can potentially accelerate the aging process.
Mammals under calorie restriction produce fewer ROS and age slower. Such effects of calorie restriction have been attributed to its ability to lower the steady state of oxidative stress, slow the accumulation of age-associated oxidative damage, and increase metabolic efficiency.
A common phenomenon in all of the aforementioned theories is that ROS serve as a contributing factor to many age-associated diseases.
Psychosociological theory
In addition to theories of aging based on molecules and cells, there also exists a “psychosociological” theory of aging. As people grow older, their behaviour changes, their social interactions change, and the activities in which they engage change. The psychosociological theory of aging can be divided roughly into four component theories: disengagement, activity, life-course, and continuity theories. Disengagement theory is based on hampered relationships between a person and other members of society. Activity theory emphasizes the importance of ongoing social activity and suggests that a person’s self-concept (self-perspective) is related to the roles held by that person. Life-course theory is based on the developmental stages proposed by German-born American psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson. According to Erikson’s stages, maturity is a process that continues into old age, and in each stage the individual encounters new psychosocial demands. Continuity theory states that older adults try to preserve and maintain internal and external characteristics (e.g., values, personality, preferences, and behaviour patterns) throughout life, despite changes in their health or life circumstances.
Natural history of aging
Reproduction and aging
Reproduction is an all-important function of an organism’s life history, and all other vital processes, including senescence and death, are shaped to serve it. The distinction between semelparous and iteroparous modes of reproduction is important for an understanding of biological aging. Semelparous organisms reproduce by a single reproductive act. Annual and biennial plants are semelparous, as are many insects and a few vertebrates, notably salmon and eels. Iteroparous organisms, on the other hand, reproduce recurrently over a reproductive span that usually covers a major part of the total life span.
In semelparous forms, reproduction takes place near the end of the life span, after which there ensues a rapid senescence that quickly leads to the death of the organism. In plants the senescent phase is usually an integral part of the reproductive process and essential for its completion. The dispersal of seeds, for example, is accomplished by processes—including ripening and falling (abscission) of fruits and drying of seed pods—that are inseparable from the overall senescence process. Moreover, the onset of plant senescence is invariably initiated by the changing levels of hormones, which are under systemic or environmental control. If, for example, the hormone auxin is prevented, by experimental means, from influencing the plant, the plant lives longer than normal and undergoes an atypical prolonged pattern of senescent change.
Useful inferences can be drawn from the study of the aging processes of insects that display two distinct kinds of adaptive coloration: the procryptic, in which the patterns and colours afford the insect concealment in its native habitat; and the aposematic, in which the vivid markings serve as a warning that the insect is poisonous or bad-tasting. The two adaptation patterns have different optimal species-survival strategies: the procryptics die out as quickly as possible after completing reproduction, thus reducing the opportunity for predators to learn how to detect them; the aposematics have longer post-reproductive survival, thus increasing their opportunity to condition predators. Both adaptations are found in the family of saturniid moths, and it has been shown that the duration of their post-reproductive survival is governed by an enzyme system that controls the fraction of time spent in flight: procryptics fly more, exhaust themselves, and die quickly; aposematics fly less, conserve their energies, and live longer.
These examples indicate that in semelparous forms, in which full vigour and function are required until virtually the end of life, senescence has an onset closely coupled with the completion of the reproductive process and is governed by relatively simple enzymatic mechanisms that can be modified by natural selection. Such specific, genetically controlled senescence processes are instances of programmed life termination.
The iteroparous forms include most vertebrates, most of the longer-lived insects, crustaceans and spiders, cephalopod and gastropod mollusks, and perennial plants. In contrast to semelparous forms, iteroparous organisms need not survive to the end of their reproductive phase in order to reproduce successfully, and the average fraction of the reproductive span survived varies widely between groups: small rodents and birds in the wild survive on the average only 10 percent to 20 percent of their potential reproductive lifetimes; whales, elephants, apes, and other large mammals in the wild, on the other hand, live through 50 percent or more of their reproductive spans, and a few survive beyond reproductive age. In iteroparous forms the onset of senescence is gradual, with no evidence of specific systemic or environmental initiating mechanisms. Senescence manifests itself early as a decline in reproductive performance. In species that grow to a fixed body size, decline of reproductive capacity begins quite early and accelerates with increasing age. In large egg-laying reptiles, which attain sexual maturity while relatively small in size and continue to grow during a long reproductive span, the number of eggs laid per year increases with age and body size but eventually levels off and declines. The reproductive span in such cases is shorter than the life span.
These comparisons illustrate the influence exerted by factors of population dynamics on the evolution of reproductive and bodily (somatic) senescence. The proportional contribution of an individual to the rate of increase of the iteroparous population obviously diminishes as the number of its living progeny increases. In addition, the individual’s reproductive capacity diminishes with age. These facts imply that there is an optimum number of litters per lifetime. Whether or not these influences of population dynamics lead to the evolution of adaptive senescence patterns has long been debated by gerontologists but has not yet been investigated definitively.
There is some evidence that calorie restriction delays reproductive senescence, which can be at least partially explained by the beneficial effects on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to enhance the secretion of luteinizing hormone, which helps regulate the activity of the gonads, or sex glands.
