The connection between an organism’s genetic makeup and its immune system, as well as applications of that knowledge, form the young science of immunogenetics. In particular, producers must control diseases in their livestock if they are going to be profitable. While vaccines, hygiene, and other therapeutic methods control most diseases, vaccines are expensive and none of these methods is completely effective. However, there is evidence from experiments and field data of some degree of genetic control over the immune system in humans and animals. For example, bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD) is a hereditary disease that was discovered in Holstein calves in the 1980s. The presence of the BLAD gene leads to high rates of bacterial infections, pneumonia, diarrhea, and typically death by age four months in cattle, and those that survive their youth have stunted growth and continued susceptibility to infections. It was soon found that these calves carried two copies of a recessive gene that was present in nearly 25 percent of Holstein bulls. Cattle with only one copy of the gene, or carriers, had normal growth patterns and immune systems. Holstein bulls are now routinely tested for the BLAD gene before being used for artificial insemination. With a high percentage of Holsteins being bred artificially, a potentially major problem has been avoided.

Genetic control of the immune system is based on the DNA of the individuals. Histocompatibility genes that serve several functions are on one area of a chromosome, called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which exists in all higher vertebrates. There are large numbers of genes involved in the MHCs of different species. There are more than 60 different alleles at one locus and other loci are multi-allelic. There are also differences among species in the number of genes known. In addition, selection experiments have demonstrated genetic variation between lines selected for high and low response to different antigens. Some vaccinations are more efficacious when the animals have been selected for resistance to the antigen for which they are vaccinated.

Substantial progress has been made in the field of immunogenetics, but limited use has been made of this knowledge. One reason for this is that immune systems have evolved to be generally robust. Changing the frequency of some genes that control immune function may inadvertently change the function of other genes and result in adverse effects. Experiments are now under way to determine whether sires’ immune responses can be used to predict the health of their daughters under field conditions. The results indicate that there are differences among sires’ daughter groups, but the differences are not large enough to control a high proportion of the variability. The tests used were based primarily on leukocytes, which are the first line of defense when an antigen invades an animal. Application of knowledge in the area of immunogenetics must be used with caution.

It might seem that integrating molecular markers and quantitative methods would be a trivial task. However, the effect of some genes depends on the presence of others, and these interactions need to be considered along with the particular breeding scheme. Furthermore, there are nongenetic influences that may turn genes on and off. Thus, some genes act individually, some genes interact, and the environment has a further impact. Finding how these all affect the phenotypic expression of an organism is complicated. However, this challenge presents an opportunity for future research and for producers.

Many advances in reproductive technologies have been made, though many are too expensive for everyday use. Most of the advanced techniques use artificial insemination, which was developed decades ago, though refinements continue.

Cloning

Cloning, an asexual method of reproduction, produces an individual with the same genetic material (DNA) as another individual. Probably the best-known examples of clones are identical twins, which result when cells in the early development stage separate and develop into different individuals. Though the DNA in cloned individuals is the same, environmental influences may make them differ in phenotype. Thus far, the commercial use of clones has been limited. Cloning can be used to produce clones from a highly productive individual, but the cost would have to be low enough to recover the expense quickly. Animals have been cloned by three processes: embryo splitting, blastomere dispersal, and nuclear transfer. Nuclear transfer is most common and involves enucleating an ovum, or egg, with all the genetic material removed. This material is replaced with a full set of chromosomes from a suitable donor cell, which is microinjected into the enucleated cell. Then the enucleated cell, with the transplanted chromosome, is placed into a recipient female to be carried through gestation.

Determining sex from sperm

There is a commercial demand for the ability to predetermine the sex of livestock. For example, a producer may want female calves from the best cows for replacements and male calves for beef production. Dairy producers may want more females for replacing cows or for expansion of their herds. The sex of mammals is determined by the sex chromosomes, or X and Y chromosomes. Animals with two X chromosomes develop into females; animals with an X and a Y chromosome develop into males. Thus, the detection of X and Y chromosomes on sperm has been the focus of research to predetermine the sex of domestic animals.

In one process, sperm is pretreated with a dye that fluoresces when exposed to short wavelength light. The fluorescence is brighter from a sperm bearing X chromosomes, which contain about 4 percent more DNA than the Y chromosome. A stream of dyed sperm is passed through a flow cytometer, a computer determines the degree of fluorescence, and the sperm is separated into different containers. The success rate can be as high as 40 percent. When “sexed sperm” has been used on a commercial basis, though, it has had limited success. The conception rate using sexed sperm is lower in cows, though it is higher in primiparous cows. In addition, sperm are killed in the typing process, and the rate of sexing the sperm is slower than desired. While economical processing of sperm is just getting started, it is expected to become another useful tool in animal agriculture.