The water budget at the air-surface interface is also of crucial importance in influencing atmospheric processes. The surface gains water through precipitation (rain and snow), direct condensation, and deposition (dew and frost). On land, the precipitation is often so large that some of it infiltrates into the ground or runs off into streams, rivers, lakes, and the oceans. Some of the precipitation remaining on the surface, such as in puddles or on vegetation, immediately evaporates back into the atmosphere.

Liquid water in the soil is also converted to water vapour by transpiration from the leaves and stems of plants and by evaporation. The roots of vegetation may extract water from within the soil and emit it through stoma, or small openings, on the leaves. In addition, water may be evaporated from the surface of the soil directly, when groundwater from below is diffused upward. Evaporation occurs at the surface of water bodies at a rate that is inversely proportional to the relative humidity immediately above the surface. Evaporation is rapid in dry air but much slower when the lowest levels of the atmosphere are close to saturation. Evaporation from soils is dependent on the rate at which moisture is supplied by capillary suction within the soil, whereas transpiration from vegetation is dependent on both the water available within the root zone of plants and whether the stoma are open on the leaf surfaces. Water that evaporates and transpires into the atmosphere is often transported long distances before it precipitates out.

The input, transport, and removal of water from the atmosphere is part of the hydrologic cycle. At any one time, only a very small fraction of Earth’s water is present within the atmosphere; if all the atmospheric water was condensed out, it would cover the surface of the planet only to an average of about 2.5 cm (1 inch).

Nitrogen budget

The nitrogen budget involves the chemical transformation of diatomic nitrogen (N₂), which makes up 78 percent of the atmospheric gases, into compounds containing ammonium (NH⁺), nitrite (NO₂⁻), and nitrate (NO₃⁻). In a process called nitrification, or nitrogen fixation, bacteria such as Rhizobium living within nodules on the roots of peas, clover, and other legumes convert diatomic nitrogen gas to ammonia. A small amount of nitrogen is also fixed by lightning. Ammonia may be further transformed by other bacteria into nitrites and nitrates and used by plants for growth. These compounds are eventually converted back to N₂ after the plants die or are eaten by denitrifying bacteria. These bacteria, in their consumption of plants and both the excrement and corpses of plant-eating animals, convert much of the nitrogen compounds back to N₂. Some of these compounds are also converted to N₂ by a series of chemical processes associated with ultraviolet light from the Sun. The combustion of petroleum by motor vehicles also produces oxides of nitrogen, which enhance the natural concentrations of these compounds. Smog, which occurs in many urban areas, is associated with substantially higher levels of nitrogen oxides.

Sulfur budget

The sulfur budget is also of major importance. Sulfur is put into the atmosphere as a result of weathering of sulfur-containing rocks and by intermittent volcanic emissions. Organic forms of sulfur are incorporated into living organisms and represent an important component in both the structure and the function of proteins. Sulfur also appears in the atmosphere as the gas sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and as part of particulate compounds containing sulfate (SO₄). Alone, both are directly dry-deposited or precipitated out onto Earth’s surface. When wetted, these compounds are converted to caustic sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Britannica Quiz

How the Earth Works: A Quiz

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have injected significant quantities of sulfur into the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels. In and near regions of urbanization and heavy industrial activity, the enhanced deposition and precipitation of sulfur in the form of sulfuric acid, and of nitrogen oxides in the form of nitric acid (HNO₃), resulting from vehicular emissions, have been associated with damage to fish populations, forests, statues, and building exteriors. The conversion of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to acids such as H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ is commonly known as the acid rain problem. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are precipitated in rain, snow, and dry deposition (deposition to the surface during dry weather).