- Also called:
- childbirth or parturition
- Related Topics:
- multiple birth
- presentation
- natural childbirth
- labour
- dilatation
Posterior presentation
The child may lie so that the back of its head is directed backward and toward either the right or left side. The leading pole is then in the right or left posterior quadrant of the mother’s pelvis, and the presentation is referred to as occipitoanterior position. In such cases the back of the child’s head usually rotates to the front of the pelvis and labour proceeds as in transverse positions. Because of the longer rotation required, labour may be somewhat more prolonged than in transverse positions.
Face presentation
When the child’s head becomes bent back (extended) so that it enters and passes through the pelvis face first, the condition is known as a face, or cephalic, presentation. The chin is then the leading pole and follows the same course that is followed by the back of the head in occipital presentations. If the chin lies to the front as it enters the pelvis, labour often is easy and of short duration. Should it be directed backward, on the other hand, considerable difficulty may be encountered, and the head may have to be flexed or rotated artificially.
Breech presentation
Passage of the lower extremities or the buttocks through the pelvis first, called breech presentation, is encountered in 3 to 4 percent of deliveries. Because the head in such cases is the last part of the child to be delivered and because this part of the delivery is the most difficult, the umbilical cord may be compressed while the aftercoming head is being born, with the result that the child may be asphyxiated. Asphyxia or injuries to the child that result from the attendant’s effort to hasten the delivery in order to prevent the child’s asphyxiation are responsible for the loss of three times as many breech babies as head-on babies. For this reason the child may need to be manipulated into a head-on position by the attendant or be delivered by the surgical procedure called cesarean section.
The infant mortality rate in developed countries varies from 2 to 10 percent according to the size of the child and skill of the attendant. Because very small premature infants are particularly susceptible to the dangers of breech delivery, the mortality among them is very high when they are born breech first.
Transverse presentation
In this relatively rare situation the long axis of the child tends to lie across, or transverse to, the long axis of the mother. Unless the child is very small, delivery through the natural passages is impossible in such cases; therefore, delivery by cesarean section is necessary.
Because the above-mentioned complications are infrequent and can be cared for easily, the maternal death rate is less than 1 per 1,000 and would be still lower if the deaths caused by complicating systemic diseases were excluded. The infant mortality rate is also low, ranging between 1.5 and 3 percent. It would be much lower if premature and poorly developed infants were excluded. In other words, the risk to a healthy mother who carries her child to maturity is less than 1 per 1,000, and the risk to her mature child is about 0.5 percent.
Third stage: placental stage
With the expulsion of the child, the cavity of the uterus is greatly diminished (see uterus immediately after birth in the ). As a consequence, the site of placental attachment becomes markedly reduced in size, with the result that the placenta (afterbirth) is separated in many places from the membrane lining the uterus. Within a few minutes subsequent uterine contractions complete the separation and force the placenta into the vagina, from which it is expelled by a bearing-down effort. The third stage of labour, accordingly, is of short duration, seldom lasting longer than 15 minutes. Occasionally, however, the separation may be delayed and accompanied by bleeding, in which case surgical removal of the placenta is necessary.
Alfred C. BeckRelief of pain in labour
Pain experienced in childbirth can be reduced or relieved by psychoprophylaxis, systemic drugs, regional nerve blocks, or a combination of those methods. One of the first drugs to be used for pain relief was chloroform, which was initially employed in the late 1840s but eventually came into disuse because of its toxicity. In the early 20th century a mixture of scopolamine, an amnesic drug, and morphine was given to produce “twilight sleep.” On awakening from the induced dreamlike state, the woman would have no memory of her labour pains. The desire to be an active participant in the birth experience and to avoid the side effects of delirium and hallucinations led to abandonment of this approach.
Since first described in the 1930s, psychoprophylaxis has gained in popularity as a method of psychologically and physically preparing a woman for childbirth, thereby helping her to anticipate and cope with the pain of labour (see below Natural childbirth). In addition, a comfortable and pleasant environment, supportive friends and family, and a competent and encouraging birth attendant can help to reduce or even eliminate the need for pharmaceutical pain relief. No one method, however, is suited to every woman. Drugs and techniques that are currently in use are described briefly in the following sections.
Systemic drugs
Meperidine and morphine, given intravenously, are common narcotic drugs used for pain relief (analgesia) during labour. There are side effects associated with both drugs—namely, nausea and vomiting. When promethazine is given in conjunction with meperidine, these side effects are ameliorated. Other negative maternal effects caused by systemic analgesics are drowsiness, respiratory depression, and lowering of blood pressure (hypotension). Because systemic drugs cross the placental barrier, they can also affect the newborn, causing respiratory depression, decreased alertness, and abnormal reflexes. The longer the duration between the administration of the narcotic and the birth of the child, the higher the level of the drug in the infant and the greater its effects. Another drug commonly used for systemic analgesia is butorphanol, which produces less neonatal depression.
Barbiturates, once important for lessening labour pains, are now only rarely administered during labour. Although they are sedatives, which normally induce a relaxed state, they are not analgesics and actually may increase sensitivity to pain. Barbiturates also cause respiratory depression in the newborn if administered in active labour, which can be exacerbated by the concomitant use of narcotic analgesics. Sedatives are used only in the early stages of labour to help the woman relax and rest before the contractions of active labour begin.
Local anesthesia
Concerns about the negative effects that systemic drugs may have on the mother and newborn have led to heavy reliance on local anesthesia. Local anesthetic agents work by preventing the conduction of nerve impulses. Their actions are limited to nervous tissue located near the injection site, because of their ability to diffuse only short distances. Therefore, local anesthetics numb only an isolated part of the body and allow the woman to retain consciousness, lucidity, and control over the rest of her body.
Epidural block
The lumbar epidural block has become one of the most popular choices for management of labour pain in the United States. The most common anesthetics used are bupivacaine and lidocaine. When a catheter is used, the advantages of this technique include the ability to modify dose, volume, and type of anesthetic, as appropriate to the stage of labour. If a cesarean delivery becomes necessary, the epidural anesthesia can be extended to provide pain relief for the procedure. Problems associated with a lumbar epidural block include lowering of maternal blood pressure and urinary retention. Because this procedure can slow labour, the hormone oxytocin is often administered concurrently to stimulate uterine contractions.
Spinal anesthesia
Spinal anesthesia (sometimes called spinal block) is produced when a local anesthetic agent, such as lidocaine or bivucaine, sometimes mixed with a narcotic, is injected into the cerebrospinal fluid in the lumbar region of the spine. This technique allows the woman to be awake, while producing extensive numbing of the abdomen, legs, and feet. Because it is a single injection, its duration is limited, generally lasting about two hours, depending on the dose. As a result, spinal anesthesia is typically reserved for cesarean sections or is administered during labour when delivery is expected within two hours. A type of spinal anesthesia called a saddle block anesthetizes the inner thighs, buttocks, and perineum—the parts of the body that in a sitting position would come into contact with a saddle. The numbing effect occasionally extends beyond the intended saddle area, however, reaching as far as the toes. Extreme maternal hypotension, a decrease in utero-placental perfusion, and loss of the urge to push are risks that can accompany spinal anesthesia. These effects, as well as the popularity of more natural childbirth experiences and of epidural block, contributed to a decline in the use of this method.
Pudendal block
The pudendal block is a relatively simple and common procedure that numbs the birth canal and perineum for spontaneous delivery, forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, and episiotomy. The same anesthetic agents employed in epidural anesthesia are used and are injected through the vagina to the pudendal nerve. This technique relieves the pain from perineal distension but not from uterine contractions.