cephalic disorder

cephalic disorder, any of several conditions affecting the structure and function of the human brain and central nervous system that are caused by either abnormalities in fetal development or trauma to the fetus. Cephalic disorders affect infants and children worldwide. There often is no effective means of prevention or treatment, and thus the disorders typically are associated with poor outcome. There are many different kinds of cephalic disorders; this article discusses the principal types.

Anencephaly

Anencephaly occurs when significant portions of the brain and skull are missing. The condition results from a failure of the upper region of the neural tube to close in early embryonic development, specifically within the first month of pregnancy. (The neural tube is the primitive structure from which develops the central nervous system.) Females are more likely to be affected than males. Insufficient maternal intake of folic acid is thought to increase the likelihood of anencephaly as well as other neural tube defects. The condition can be diagnosed during pregnancy through blood screening tests and ultrasound, and it is immediately apparent at birth. Infants born with anencephaly die at or soon after birth.

Colpocephaly

Colpocephaly is the enlargement of the occipital horns, which are located at the posterior (rear) end of the lateral ventricles and protrude into the occipital lobe at the back of the brain. Their enlargement is due to insufficient development of the posterior cerebrum (the cerebrum is the largest, uppermost portion of the brain). The precise cause of colpocephaly is unknown, though in the first two trimesters of pregnancy, specifically between months two and six, some anomaly within the uterine environment may precipitate the condition. Children who are born with this malformation are affected by microcephaly, intellectual disability, muscle spasms, and seizures. The prognosis with colpocephaly is directly correlated with the degree of abnormality.

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Holoprosencephaly

Holoprosencephaly results from the failed development of the prosencephalon (forebrain) in the embryo. The prosencephalon fails to divide and form the two cerebral hemispheres, resulting in defects in both the brain and the face. About one-half of holoprosencephaly cases are caused by chromosomal defects, such as trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome) and trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome). The clinical presentation of this disorder falls along a broad spectrum, with defects as minor as a cleft lip or as severe as cyclopia (one eye). One risk factor for the development of holoprosencephaly is birth to a diabetic mother.

Hydranencephaly

Hydranencephaly is a form of porencephaly in which the brain lacks cerebral hemispheres and instead is occupied by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-filled sacs. The condition develops after the 12th week of pregnancy and is caused by a stroke or other vascular event, by an injury, or by an infection. Although the infant may appear normal at birth, after a few weeks he or she demonstrates irritability and hypertonia (excessive muscle tone). Seizures and hydrocephalus, in which CFS accumulates in the brain, leading to enlargement of the head, develop after several months. Death typically occurs during the first year of life, although reports exist of patients surviving to age 10 or even 20.

Iniencephaly

Iniencephaly is evident when the head is tilted back, in an extreme retroflexed position, such that an infant is born with the face looking upward; in most cases, the neck is apparently absent. The disorder is accompanied by severe spinal defects and often brain and face malformations, such as anencephaly and cyclopia. Iniencephaly is a neural tube defect. The skin of the face and chest is continuous, as is the skin of the scalp and back. Females are affected more than males. These infants tend to survive for only a few hours after birth.

Lissencephaly

Lissencephaly means “smooth brain.” The normal brain surface has many folds and grooves (gyri and sulci), but a brain affected by lissencephaly does not; the folds may be incomplete or entirely absent. Lissencephaly is further characterized by microcephaly (reduced head size) and by symptoms such as muscle spasms, seizures, abnormal facial expressions, failure to thrive, and deformation of the hands, fingers, or toes. Lissencephaly is caused by abnormalities in the migration of neurons in embryonic development, which in turn may be caused by genetic mutations, viral infection of the fetus or uterus, or insufficient delivery of blood to the embryonic brain. A number of different forms of lissencephaly have been recognized, which cover a spectrum of severity. Examples of several types include Miller-Dieker syndrome, isolated lissencephaly sequence, and Walker-Warburg syndrome. With intensive treatment, some affected infants can survive well into childhood; however, many die before age 10.

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Megalencephaly

Megalencephaly, or macrencephaly, is characterized by a large and heavy brain, abnormally so for the child’s sex and weight for age (usually a brain weight greater than 2.5 standard deviations over the mean). The condition appears to be associated with defects in the mechanisms that regulate the growth and production of cells in the brain, resulting in increased cell size and cell number. The head may be enlarged at birth, or it may become enlarged as the child’s development progresses. In the latter case, megalencephaly may occur as part of another disorder, such as leukodystrophy or neurofibromatosis. Children with megalencephaly experience brain malfunction, and they typically are affected by developmental delays and seizures. The disorder is three to four times more common in males than females.

Microcephaly

Microcephaly means “small head”; it is defined formally as a head circumference that is smaller than two standard deviations from the average for sex and age. It can be caused by a variety of factors that affect the mother during pregnancy, including exposure to chemicals or radiation, infections, diabetes, vitamin and nutrient deficiency, or drug or alcohol abuse. The most frequent causes, however, are chromosomal abnormalities that result in an inappropriately developing brain. Along with a small head circumference, patients with microcephaly can experience developmental delay as well as a variety of neurological disorders, including seizures and problems with balance and coordination. Some affected children experience only mild symptoms and otherwise develop normally.

Porencephaly

Porencephaly occurs when CSF-filled cysts or cavities form in the cerebral hemispheres. The condition is very rare and can manifest before birth, when caused by inherited defects in brain development in the prenatal period, or after birth, by destruction of brain tissue by stroke or infection in infancy. Signs and symptoms of porencephaly include developmental delay, including delayed growth and speech development; seizures; incomplete paralysis; hypotonia (reduced muscle tone) with spastic muscle contraction; and hydrocephalus, microcephaly, or macrocephaly (an enlarged head). Severely affected individuals often do not survive to adulthood.

Schizencephaly

Schizencephaly is a type of porencephaly in which slits (clefts) develop in the cerebral hemispheres. Genetic abnormalities appear to play a role in at least one form of the disorder. Maternal factors, such as the use of certain medications or contact with certain toxins while pregnant, may also cause schizencephaly. The underlying cellular defects appear to be related to improper neuronal migration during early prenatal development. Patients with schizencephaly that affects the entire brain (with bilateral slits) typically suffer from developmental delay, whereas patients who are affected on only one side of the brain may have unilateral (one-sided) weakness but potentially normal intelligence.