continental margin
continental margin, the submarine edge of the continental crust distinguished by relatively light and isostatically high-floating material in comparison with the adjacent oceanic crust. It is the name for the collective area that encompasses the continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. The characteristics of the various continental margins are shaped by a number of factors. Chief among these are tectonics, fluctuations of sea level, the size of the rivers that empty onto a margin as determined by the amount of sediment they carry, and the energy conditions or strength of the ocean waves and currents along the margin.
Margin types
Continental margins on the leading edges of tectonic plates, like those around the rim of the Pacific Ocean, are usually narrow and have steep continental slopes and either poorly developed continental rises or none at all. The continental slope is often steep and falls away directly into a deep-sea trench. In many cases, the leading-edge margins are backed by mountain ranges. Continental margins on the trailing side of tectonic plates, like those around the Atlantic Ocean, are broad, with gentle continental slopes and well-developed continental rises. The adjacent land area is commonly a broad coastal plain that, depending on the state of sea level, may become submerged from time to time and hence part of the continental margin.
Since continental margins are the shallowest parts of the world’s oceans, they are most affected by changes in sea level. Worldwide changes in sea level, called eustatic sea-level changes, have occurred throughout geologic history. The most common causes of such sea-level changes are global climatic fluctuations that lead to major glacial advances and retreats—that is, ice ages and interglacial periods. Other causes that are not as well understood may include major mountain-building events and isostatic changes in crustal plates. When continental glaciers advance, as they did several times during the Pleistocene Epoch (which extended from about 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago), water that would normally be in the oceans is locked up as ice on land, resulting in a drop in sea level. As the glaciers retreat, more water is fed to the ocean basins and the sea level rises. Fluctuations from highstand to lowstand have totaled 250 metres (about 800 feet) or more during Cenozoic time (roughly the last 65.5 million years), with concomitant fluctuations in exposure and flooding of the continental margins. (During a highstand the sea level is above the edge of the continental shelf, while during a lowstand it is below the shelf edge.)
Rivers bring a variety of sediments to the coast. These are classified by their mineralogy and by particle size and include sand, silt, and clay. To sedimentologists, sand is a grain of any composition from 63 to 2,000 micrometres (0.002 to 0.08 inch) in its largest diameter. Silt is 4 to 62 micrometres (0.0002 to 0.002 inch), and clay is any particle less than 4 micrometres. Most of the detrital minerals brought to the continental margins by rivers in sand and silt sizes are quartz, feldspars, and mica; those of clay size are a suite of clay minerals that most commonly include smectite, kaolinite, and illite. (Clay can, in other words, refer either to particle size or to a group of minerals.) These, then, are the mineral constituents that together with calcium carbonates produced in the oceans by biogenic activity as shells and the hard parts of plants and animals, go to make up the sedimentary packages that are deposited on and constitute a fundamental part of continental margins.
A constant battle is being waged between the rivers that bring sediments eroded from the land to the sea and the waves and currents of the receiving body of water. This dynamic struggle goes on year after year, century after century, sometimes for millions of years. Take, for example, the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico, into which the Mississippi River flows. The continental margin at this site is subject to relatively low wave and current energy, and so the river filled up most of the adjacent continental shelf with a delta and typically dumps over 200 million tons of sediment each year directly at the top of the continental slope. By contrast, the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest of the United States carries 131 million tons to the coast, where the sediments are attacked by the large waves and currents normal for that margin. As a result, sediments are widely dispersed, and the shelf is not filled with a large subaerial delta.
The effects of this battle are easily seen where human activities have interfered with the transport of sediments to the sea by major rivers. For example, the Nile River delta is retreating rapidly, widening the submerged portion of the continental margin, because the Aswan High Dam has trapped much of the sediment normally fed to the delta front. The lower Mississippi River has been artificially maintained in a channel by high man-made levees. These have stopped the floods that fed much of the western delta margin. Because of this, coupled with a slow rise in sea level and the effects of canals dug in the delta wetlands, the coast has begun to retreat significantly.
When rivers carrying sediment from the interiors of continents reach the sea, several things happen. Velocity in the river jet decreases rapidly, and the sand particles drop out to be picked up by the waves and currents along the coast, where they feed beaches or barrier island systems. If the river has a large enough discharge, the finer-than-sand-sized materials may be carried for kilometres onto the margin in a fresh- or brackish-water plume. The surf system then acts as a wave filter, trapping the sand in the coastal zone but allowing the finer materials to be carried out onto the margin. When estuaries are the receiving bodies of water on the coastal boundaries of continental margins, as in the case of the east coast of North America, virtually all the sediments brought down by the rivers are trapped within the confines of the estuaries.
In addition to the two primary types of continental margins, there also are special types that do not readily fit either category. One of the most intensely studied margins of the world is the Borderland, the continental margin of southern California and northern Baja California. It consists of a series of offshore basins and ridges, some of which are exposed as islands. This system of basins and ridges formed as the result of faulting associated with the movement of the Pacific Plate past the North American Plate. It remains tectonically active today and is related to the San Andreas Fault system of California. A second special type is the marginal plateau. The Blake Plateau off the east coast of Florida is a good example. Such a plateau constitutes a portion of a continental margin that has many of the features of a normal system but is found at much greater depth—1,000 metres (about 3,300 feet) in the case of the Blake Plateau.
Continental margins can be either constructional or erosional over varying periods of geologic time, depending on the combination of factors discussed above. When deposition exceeds erosion, the margin grows seaward, a process of progradation that builds out as well as up. When the erosive forces are predominant, the margin remains static or actually retreats over time. Some geologists think that the continental margin of the eastern United States has retreated as much as 5–30 km (3–19 miles) since the end of the Cretaceous Period some 65.5 million years ago.
Economic importance of continental margins
Continental margins are very significant economically. Most of the major fisheries of the world are located on them. Of these, sport fisheries and related tourist industries are becoming increasingly important to the economies of developed nations. Paradoxically, continental margins also are one of the world’s biggest dump sites. All kinds of wastes are disposed of along the margins, and the effects of pollution have become a major global concern .
Continental margins are the only parts of the world’s oceans to be effectively exploited for mineral resources. Millions of tons of sand are mined by dredges each year off the U.S. coasts alone for beach renourishment projects. From time to time placer deposits also have been worked. Examples include tin off Indonesia, gold off Alaska, and diamonds off Namibia. By far and away the largest mineral resources to be exploited from continental margins are oil and natural gas. Exploration of the continental margins by major oil companies has intensified and is expected to continue for the foreseeable future because the margins are the most likely sites of giant undiscovered petroleum deposits. Continental margins are made of thick accumulations of sedimentary rock, the type of rock in which oil and gas generally occur. In fact, most of the sedimentary rocks exposed on the continents were originally deposited on continental margins; thus, even the hydrocarbon deposits found on land were formed for the most part on ancient continental margins.
Larry James Doyle