- Key People:
- Carl Sagan
- Paul Davies
- Freeman Dyson
- Percival Lowell
News •
The average surface temperature of Venus is approximately 750 K (477 °C, or 891 °F). Even at the poles or on the tops of the highest Venusian mountains, surface temperatures do not fall below 400 K (127 °C, or 261 °F). The temperatures on Venus are too hot for Earth-style life. However, carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water (according to the results of the Venera space vehicles) are found in the clouds of Venus. These three are the prerequisites for photosynthesis. Molecular nitrogen also is expected at the cloud level, and some minerals are likely convectively raised to the cloud level from surface dust. The cloud pressures are about the same as those on the surface of Earth, and the temperatures in the lower clouds also are quite Earth-like. Although highly acidic by virtue of their sulfur, the lower clouds of Venus are the most Earth-like extraterrestrial environment known. No organisms on Earth lead a completely airborne existence, so most scientists dispute the possibility that organisms exist buoyed in the clouds of Venus.
Jovian planets
The atmosphere of Jupiter is composed of hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, some neon, and water vapor. These are exactly the gases used in experiments that simulate the early Earth. Laboratory and computer experiments have been performed on the application of energy to simulated Jovian atmospheres. Immediate gas-phase products include significant quantities of hydrogen cyanide and acetylene. More-complex organic molecules, including aromatic hydrocarbons, are formed in lower yields. The clouds of Jupiter are vividly colored, and their hue may be attributable to organic compounds. An apparent absorption feature near 260 nanometers in Jupiter’s ultraviolet spectrum may be due to aromatic hydrocarbons or even due to nucleotide bases. Jupiter may be a vast planetary brew that has operated for 4.5 billion years as a laboratory of organic chemistry.
The other Jovian planets, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, resemble Jupiter, although less is known about them. Their cloud-top temperatures progressively decrease with distance from the Sun. Microwave studies of Saturn indicate that the atmospheric temperature increases with depth below the clouds. A similar situation is expected to exist on Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets of the solar system are associated with many natural satellites. Some, such as Titan, a satellite of Saturn, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter, have atmospheres. Despite the relative suitability for life’s preconditions, no evidence is known for life on the outer planets or their satellites.
Europa, other Jovian moons, comets, and asteroids
Europa, the fourth largest satellite of Jupiter, may be the best candidate for extraterrestrial life in the solar system. The Galileo orbiter revealed a crust of water ice and a complex surface on this moon. Optical imaging, thermographic temperature probes, and magnetic field measurements support the strong inference that a liquid saltwater ocean surges beneath the frozen crust. A wisp of an oxygen atmosphere has also been detected by spectrographic techniques. Furthermore, since organic molecules including methane and nitrogen-rich gases such as ammonia abound on Jupiter and some of its other moons, such “prebiotic chemicals” are highly likely to be present on Europa. The Galileo flyby also detected abundant sulfuric acid, a potential chemical power source, on the surface of Europa. (Such discoveries in the Jovian planets inspire further investigation of the limits to diversity of life on Earth. Lakes such as Vostok in Antarctica reside under more than 3 km [2 miles] of ice. Studies of bacteria in these lakes and of water seeps within cavities in granitic and carbonate rocks provide models for the viability of possible Earth-like life-forms on Europa and other Jovian moons.)
Io is the most volcanically active place in the solar system, and Ganymede and Callisto may also have water ice under their surfaces. The immense tidal influence of Jupiter regularly pumps energy into these planetary systems. Now that it has become clear that chemoautotrophic life-forms do not require sunlight as sources of energy, some scientists argue that a shift of focus from Mars and the other inner planets is in order. The outer planets’ satellites, especially Europa and Saturn’s Titan, promise new insights into the search for extraterrestrial life in the solar system. In 2008, for example, the Cassini spacecraft reported several hundred lakes and seas of organic materials on Titan, dozens of which contain more liquid hydrocarbon (such as methane and ethane) than all of Earth’s oil and gas reserves combined.
Tens of thousands of comets, as well as some thousands of asteroids and asteroidal fragments revolving about the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, contain organic molecules. The asteroids are the presumed sources of the carbonaceous chondrites’ organic matter. Pluto has a predominantly nitrogen atmosphere covering a surface of frozen nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. The intense cold and paucity of solar radiation on Pluto and the lack of atmosphere and liquid waters on the asteroids argue against the likelihood of finding life on these bodies.