Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a syndrome characterized by organ damage that results from the deposition of immune complexes. The immune complexes form when autoantibodies are made against the nucleic acids and protein constituents of the nucleus of cells. Such autoantibodies, called antinuclear antibodies, do not attack healthy cells, since the nucleus lies within the cell and is not accessible to antibodies. Antigen-antibody complexes form only after the nuclear contents of a cell are released into the bloodstream during the normal course of cell death or as a result of inflammation. The resultant immune complexes are deposited in tissues, causing injury. Certain organs are more commonly involved than others, including the kidneys, joints, skin, heart, and serous membranes around the lungs.
Multiple sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that results in the gradual destruction of the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve fibres. It is characterized by progressive degeneration of nerve function, interjected with periods of apparent remission. The cerebrospinal fluid of persons with multiple sclerosis contains large numbers of antibodies directed against myelin basic protein and perhaps other brain proteins. Infiltrating lymphocytes and macrophages may exacerbate the destructive response. The reason the immune system launches an attack against myelin is unknown, but several viruses have been suggested as initiators of the response. A genetic tendency toward the disease has been noted; susceptibility to the disorder is indicated by the presence of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes, which produce proteins found on the surface of B cells and some T cells.
Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus
Type I diabetes mellitus is the autoimmune form of diabetes and often arises in childhood. It is caused by the destruction of cells of the pancreatic tissue called the islets of Langerhans. Those cells normally produce insulin, the hormone that helps regulate glucose levels in the blood. Individuals with type I diabetes have high blood glucose levels that result from a lack of insulin. Dysfunction of islet cells is caused by the production of cytotoxic T cells or autoantibodies that have formed against them. Although the initiating cause of this autoimmune response is unknown, there is a genetic tendency toward the disease, which also involves class II MHC genes. It can be treated with injections of insulin; however, even when treated, type I diabetes may eventually lead to kidney failure, blindness, or serious circulation difficulties within the extremities.
Other autoimmune disorders
Mechanisms similar to those that produce autoimmune hemolytic anemia can result in the formation of antibodies against granulocytes and platelets, although autoimmune attacks against these blood cells occur less frequently. Antibodies against other types of cells occur in a number of autoimmune diseases, and those self-reactive responses may be primarily responsible for the damage incurred. In myasthenia gravis, a disease characterized by muscle weakness, autoantibodies react against receptors on muscle cells. Normally the receptors bind to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings. When acetylcholine binds to an acetylcholine receptor on the surface of muscle cells, it stimulates the muscle to contract. The autoantibodies in myasthenia gravis bind to the acetylcholine receptors without activating them. The antibodies prevent muscle contraction either by blocking acetylcholine from binding to its receptor or by destroying the receptors outright. This renders the muscle less responsive to acetylcholine and ultimately weakens muscle contraction.
A different example is provided by Goodpasture syndrome, a disorder in which autoantibodies form against the basement membrane of the blood vessels in the kidney glomeruli and in the air sacs of the lung. The autoantibodies cause severe kidney damage and lung hemorrhage.
Cancers of the lymphocytes
Tumours arising from lymphocytes are given various names: they are called leukemias if the cancer cells are present in large numbers in the blood, lymphomas if they are mainly concentrated in lymphoid tissues, and myelomas if they are B-cell tumours that secrete large amounts of immunoglobulin. The following sections describe how cancers of the lymphocytes arise and how immunological techniques are being used to determine the prognosis and treatment of B- and T-cell tumours.
Genetic causes of cancer
Most cancers result from a series of random genetic accidents, or mutations, that occur to genes involved in controlling cell growth. One general group of genes implicated in cancer initiation and growth are called oncogenes. The unaltered, healthy form of an oncogene is called a proto-oncogene. Proto-oncogenes stimulate cell growth in a controlled manner that involves the interplay of a number of other genes. However, should a proto-oncogene become mutated in some way, it may become hyperactive, leading to uncontrolled cellular proliferation and the exaggeration of some normal cellular activities. A proto-oncogene can become mutated in a number of ways. According to one mechanism, called chromosomal translocation, part of one chromosome is severed from its normal position and reattached (translocated) onto another chromosome. If a proto-oncogene appears on the piece of the chromosome that is moved, it may be separated from the region that normally regulates it. In this manner the proto-oncogene becomes unregulated and turns into an oncogene. Chromosomal translocation of proto-oncogenes is involved in a number of B-cell tumours, including Burkitt lymphoma and chronic myelogenous leukemia. T-cell leukemia also results from a chromosomal translocation.
Malignant transformation of lymphocytes
At any stage in its development, from stem cell to mature form, a lymphocyte may undergo malignant (cancerous) transformation. The transformed cell is no longer constrained by the processes that regulate normal development, and it proliferates to produce a large number of identical cells that make up the tumour. These cells retain the characteristics of the transformed cell’s particular developmental stage, and because of this cancers can be distinguished according to the stage at which transformation took place. For example, B cells that become cancerous in the early stages of development give rise to such conditions as chronic myelogenous leukemia and acute lymphocytic leukemia, whereas malignant transformation of late-stage B cells—i.e., plasma cells—can result in multiple myeloma. Regardless of what stage of the cell becomes cancerous, malignant cells outgrow and displace other cells that continue to develop normally.
Treatment of cancers through identification of antigens
Both T and B cells have surface antigens that are characteristic of different stages in their life cycle, and antibodies have been prepared that identify the antigens. Knowledge of the specific type and stage of maturation of the tumour cells helps physicians determine the prognosis and course of treatment for the patient. This is important because different types of tumours respond to different therapies and because the chances of effecting a cure vary from type to type. Advances made in drug treatments have dramatically improved the outlook for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most prevalent of the childhood leukemias. Similarly, most cases of Hodgkin disease, a common type of lymphoma that mainly strikes adults, can be cured by drugs, radiation, or a combination of both. Myelomas primarily arise in older individuals. These tumours grow fairly slowly and are usually diagnosed by virtue of the characteristic immunoglobulin they secrete, which may be produced in such large amounts that they cause secondary damage such as kidney failure.
Samuel Scott Perdue John H. Humphrey