major industrial polymers

Polyethylene (PE)

Ethylene, commonly produced by the cracking of ethane gas, forms the basis for the largest single class of plastics, the polyethylenes. Ethylene monomer has the chemical composition CH₂=CH₂; as the repeating unit of polyethylene it has the following chemical structure:

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This simple structure can be produced in linear or branched forms such as those illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. Branched versions are known as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) or linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE); the linear versions are known as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).

In 1899 a German chemist, Hans von Pechmann, observed the formation of a white precipitate during the autodecomposition of diazomethane in ether. In 1900 this compound was identified by the German chemists Eugen Bamberger and Friedrich Tschirner as polymethylene ([CH₂]_n), a polymer that is virtually identical to polyethylene. In 1935 the British chemists Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson obtained waxy, solid PE while trying to react ethylene with benzaldehyde at high pressure. Because the product had little potential use, development was slow. As a result, the first industrial PE—actually an irregularly branched LDPE—was not produced until 1939 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). It was first used during World War II as an insulator for radar cables.

In 1930 Carl Shipp Marvel, an American chemist working as a consultant at E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., discovered a high-density product, but DuPont failed to recognize the potential of the material. It was left to Karl Ziegler of the Kaiser Wilhelm (now Max Planck) Institute for Coal Research at Mülheim an der Ruhr, Ger., to win the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1963 for inventing linear HDPE—which Ziegler actually produced with Erhard Holzkamp in 1953, catalyzing the reaction at low pressure with an organometallic compound henceforth known as a Ziegler catalyst. By using different catalysts and polymerization methods, scientists subsequently produced PEs with various properties and structures. LLDPE, for example, was introduced by the Phillips Petroleum Company in 1968.

LDPE is prepared from gaseous ethylene under very high pressures (up to 350 megapascals, or 50,000 pounds per square inch) and high temperatures (up to 350° C, or 660° F) in the presence of peroxide initiators. These processes yield a polymer structure with both long and short branches. As a result, LDPE is only partly crystalline, yielding a material of high flexibility. Its principal uses are in packaging film, trash and grocery bags, agricultural mulch, wire and cable insulation, squeeze bottles, toys, and housewares.

Some LDPE is reacted with chlorine (Cl) or with chlorine and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in order to introduce chlorine or chlorosulfonyl groups along the polymer chains. Such modifications result in chlorinated polyethylene (CM) or chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM), a virtually noncrystalline and elastic material. In a process similar to vulcanization, cross-linking of the molecules can be effected through the chlorine or chlorosulfonyl groups, making the material into a rubbery solid. Because their main polymer chains are saturated, CM and CSM elastomers are highly resistant to oxidation and ozone attack, and their chlorine content gives some flame resistance and resistance to swelling by hydrocarbon oils. They are mainly used for hoses, belts, heat-resistant seals, and coated fabrics.

LLDPE is structurally similar to LDPE. It is made by copolymerizing ethylene with 1-butene and smaller amounts of 1-hexene and 1-octene, using Ziegler-Natta or metallocene catalysts. The resulting structure has a linear backbone, but it has short, uniform branches that, like the longer branches of LDPE, prevent the polymer chains from packing closely together. The main advantages of LLDPE are that the polymerization conditions are less energy-intensive and that the polymer’s properties may be altered by varying the type and amount of comonomer (monomer copolymerized with ethylene). Overall, LLDPE has similar properties to LDPE and competes for the same markets.

HDPE is manufactured at low temperatures and pressures using Ziegler-Natta and metallocene catalysts or activated chromium oxide (known as a Phillips catalyst). The lack of branches allows the polymer chains to pack closely together, resulting in a dense, highly crystalline material of high strength and moderate stiffness. Uses include blow-molded bottles for milk and household cleaners and injection-molded pails, bottle caps, appliance housings, and toys.

UHMWPE is made with molecular weights of 3 million to 6 million atomic units, as opposed to 500,000 atomic units for HDPE. These polymers can be spun into fibres and drawn, or stretched, into a highly crystalline state, resulting in high stiffness and a tensile strength many times that of steel. Yarns made from these fibres are woven into bulletproof vests.

Polypropylene (PP)

This highly crystalline thermoplastic resin is built up by the chain-growth polymerization of propylene (CH₂=CHCH₃), a gaseous compound obtained by the thermal cracking of ethane, propane, butane, or the naphtha fraction of petroleum. The polymer repeating unit has the following structure:

Only the isotactic form of polypropylene is marketed in significant quantities. (In isotactic polypropylene, all the methyl [CH₃] groups are arranged along the same side of the polymer chain.) It is produced at low temperatures and pressures using Ziegler-Natta catalysts.

Polypropylene shares some of the properties of polyethylene, but it is stiffer, has a higher melting temperature, and is slightly more oxidation-sensitive. A large proportion goes into fibres, where it is a major constituent in fabrics for home furnishings such as upholstery and indoor-outdoor carpets. Numerous industrial end uses exist for polypropylene fibre as well, including rope and cordage, disposable nonwoven fabrics for diapers and medical applications, and nonwoven fabrics for ground stabilization and reinforcement in construction and road paving. However, because of its very low moisture absorption, limited dyeability, and low softening point (an important factor when ironing clothing), polypropylene is not an important apparel fibre.

As a plastic, polypropylene is blow-molded into bottles for foods, shampoos, and other household liquids. It is also injection-molded into many products, such as appliance housings, dishwasher-proof food containers, toys, automobile battery casings, and outdoor furniture. When a thin section of molded polypropylene is flexed repeatedly, a molecular structure is formed that is capable of withstanding much additional flexing without failing. This fatigue resistance has led to the design of polypropylene boxes and other containers with self-hinged covers.

It is generally accepted that isotactic polypropylene was discovered in 1954 by the Italian chemist Giulio Natta and his assistant Paolo Chini, working in association with Montecatini (now Montedison SpA) and employing catalysts of the type recently invented by Karl Ziegler for synthesizing polyethylene. (Partly in recognition of this achievement, Natta was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1963 along with Ziegler.) Commercial production of polypropylene by Hercules Incorporated, Montecatini, and the German Farbwerke Hoechst AG began in 1957. Since the early 1980s production and consumption have increased significantly, owing to the invention of more efficient catalyst systems by Montedison and the Japanese Mitsui & Co. Ltd.

Polystyrene (PS)

This rigid, relatively brittle thermoplastic resin is polymerized from styrene (CH₂=CHC₆H₅). Styrene, also known as phenylethylene, is obtained by reacting ethylene with benzene in the presence of aluminum chloride to yield ethylbenzene, which is then dehydrogenated to yield clear, liquid styrene. The styrene monomer is polymerized using free-radical initiators primarily in bulk and suspension processes, although solution and emulsion methods are also employed. The structure of the polymer repeating unit can be represented as:

The presence of the pendant phenyl (C₆H₅) groups is key to the properties of polystyrene. These large, ring-shaped groups prevent the polymer chains from packing into close, crystalline arrangements, so that solid polystyrene is transparent. In addition, the phenyl rings restrict rotation of the chains around the carbon-carbon bonds, thus lending the polymer its noted rigidity.

The polymerization of styrene has been known since 1839, when the German pharmacist Eduard Simon reported its conversion into solid styrol, later renamed metastyrol. As late as 1930 little commercial use was found for the polymer because of brittleness and crazing (minute cracking), which were caused by impurities that brought about cross-linking of the polymer chains. By 1937 Robert Dreisbach and others at the Dow Chemical Company’s physics laboratory purified the monomer and developed a pilot-plant process for the polymer, which by 1938 was being produced commercially.

Foamed polystyrene is made into insulation, packaging, and food containers such as beverage cups, egg cartons, and disposable plates and trays. Solid polystyrene products include injection-molded eating utensils, audiocassette holders, and cases for packaging compact discs. Many foods are packaged in clear, vacuum-formed polystyrene trays, owing to the high gas permeability and good water-vapour transmission of the material.

More than half of all polystyrene produced is blended with 5 to 10 percent polybutadiene to reduce brittleness and improve impact strength. This blend is marketed as high-impact polystyrene.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Second only to PE in production and consumption, PVC is manufactured by bulk, solution, suspension, and emulsion polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer, using free-radical initiators. Vinyl chloride (CH₂=CHCl) is most often obtained by reacting ethylene with oxygen and hydrogen chloride over a copper catalyst. It is a carcinogenic gas that must be handled with special protective procedures. As a polymer repeating unit, its chemical structure is:

The repeating units take on the linear homopolymer arrangement illustrated in Figure 3A.

PVC was first prepared by the German chemist Eugen Baumann in 1872, but it was not patented until 1913, when Friedrich Heinrich August Klatte used sunlight to initiate the polymerization of vinyl chloride. Commercial application of this plastic was limited by its extreme rigidity. In 1926, while trying to dehydrohalogenate PVC in a high-boiling solvent in order to obtain an unsaturated polymer that might bond rubber to metal, Waldo Lonsbury Semon, working for the B.F. Goodrich Company in the United States, serendipitously obtained what is now called plasticized PVC. The discovery of this flexible, inert product was responsible for the commercial success of the polymer. Another route to a flexible product was copolymerization: in 1930 the Union Carbide Corporation introduced the trademarked polymer Vinylite, a copolymer of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate that became the standard material of long-playing phonograph records.

Pure PVC finds application in the construction trades, where its rigidity and low flammability are useful in pipe, conduit, siding, window frames, and door frames. In combination with plasticizer (sometimes in concentrations as high as 50 percent), it is familiar to consumers as floor tile, garden hose, imitation leather upholstery, and shower curtains.

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)

Vinylidene chloride (chemical formula CH₂=CCl₂, polymer repeating unit structure ―[CH₂―CCl₂―]) can be made directly from ethylene and chlorine or by the further chlorination of vinyl chloride with subsequent removal of hydrogen chloride by alkali treatment. It is polymerized in suspension or emulsion processes, using free-radical initiators. The outstanding property of vinylidene chloride is its low permeability to water vapour and gases—a property that makes it ideal for food packaging. Copolymers of vinylidene chloride and other monomers are also marketed. The best known is saran, a trade name for a copolymer consisting of about 87 percent vinylidene chloride and 13 percent vinyl chloride. Saran is extruded into transparent films for use as a food wrap.

Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc)

The monomer vinyl acetate (CH₂=CHO₂CCH₃) is prepared from ethylene by reaction with oxygen and acetic acid over a palladium catalyst. It is polymerized with free-radical initiators, primarily in emulsion processes, and forms the polymer phase in water-based paints. It is also polymerized in solution to give an adhesive with a very high degree of tack (stickiness).

Synthesis of three other industrial polymers begins with PVAc. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), a water-soluble polymer employed in textile and paper treatment, is made by hydrolyzing PVAc. Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and polyvinyl formal (PVF) are manufactured from PVA by reaction with butyraldehyde (CH₃CH₂CH₂CHO) and formaldehyde (CH₂O), respectively. PVB is employed as a plastic film in laminated safety glass, primarily for automobiles. PVF is used in wire insulation.

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)

Acrylonitrile (CH₂=CHCN), a compound obtained by reacting propylene with ammonia (NH₃) and oxygen in the presence of catalysts, is polymerized to polyacrylonitrile through suspension methods using free-radical initiators. The structure of the polymer repeating unit is:

Most of the polymer produced is employed in acrylic fibres, which are defined as fibres that contain 85 percent or more PAN. Because PAN is difficult to dissolve in organic solvents and is highly resistant to dyeing, very little fibre is produced containing PAN alone. On the other hand, a copolymer containing PAN and 2 to 7 percent of a vinyl comonomer such as vinyl acetate can be readily spun to fibres that are soft enough to allow penetration by dyestuffs. Acrylic fibres are soft and flexible, producing lightweight, lofty yarns. Such properties closely resemble those of wool, and hence the most common use of acrylics in apparel and carpets is as a wool replacement—for example, in knitwear such as sweaters and socks. Acrylics can be sold at a fraction of the cost of the natural fibre, and they offer better light resistance, mildew resistance, and resistance to attack by moths. Acrylic fibres are also used as precursors for the production of carbon and graphite fibres, as replacements for asbestos in cement, and in industrial filters and battery separators.

Acrylics modified by halogen-containing comonomers such as vinyl chloride or vinylidene chloride are classified as modacrylics. (By definition, modacrylics contain more than 35 and less than 85 percent PAN.) Chlorine imparts a notable flame resistance to the fibre—an advantage that makes modacrylics desirable for such products as children’s sleepwear, blankets, awnings, and tents. However, they are not as widely used as the simple acrylics because of their higher cost and because they are somewhat sensitive to heat (for instance, from ironing).

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)

Methyl methacrylate is polymerized in bulk or suspension methods using free-radical initiators. As a polymer repeating unit, its structure is:

The presence of the pendant methyl (CH₃) groups prevents the polymer chains from packing closely in a crystalline fashion and from rotating freely around the carbon-carbon bonds. As a result, PMMA is a transparent and rigid plastic. Because it retains these properties over years of exposure to ultraviolet radiation and weather, PMMA is an ideal substitute for glass. A most successful application is in internally lighted signs for advertising and directions. PMMA is also employed in domed skylights, swimming pool enclosures, aircraft canopies, instrument panels, and luminous ceilings. For these applications the plastic is sold in the form of sheets that are machined or thermoformed, but it is also injection-molded into headlights and taillights and lighting-fixture covers.

HEMA and cyanoacrylate polymers

Related in structure to methyl methacrylate are the monomers 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate and methyl cyanoacrylate, denoted by the chemical formulas

respectively. Polymers of the former compound, commonly referred to by the abbreviation HEMA, soften upon absorption of water; they are used to make soft contact lenses. The latter compound, usually referred to simply as cyanoacrylate, is unusual in that it polymerizes upon exposure to atmospheric moisture to form a strong adhesive. As a consequence, cyanoacrylates are marketed as contact adhesives under such trade names as Super Glue. Because they adhere strongly to skin, they are widely employed by surgeons (for closing incisions) and by morticians (for sealing eyes and lips).

Polymethyl acrylate and polyethyl acrylate

These materials are polymers of acrylic esters (CH₂=CHCO₂R), which have the following repeating unit structure:

R may be a methyl (CH₃) or ethyl (CH₂CH₃) group or a longer carbon chain. The polymers are generally prepared in solution- and emulsion-polymerization methods using free-radical initiators. They are employed as fibre modifiers and in adhesives and surface coatings. Acrylic ester polymers are the film-forming components of acrylic paints.

Polyacrylate elastomers

Acrylic esters, copolymerized with small amounts (approximately 5 percent) of another monomer containing a reactive halogen, can form polymer chains that interlink at the halogen sites. These so-called polyacrylate elastomers display good heat resistance (almost as good as silicone rubbers and fluoroelastomers) and resistance to swelling by hydrocarbon oils. They are mainly used for O-rings, seals, and gaskets.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

PTFE was discovered serendipitously in 1938 by a DuPont chemist, Roy Plunkett, who found that a tank of gaseous tetrafluoroethylene (CF₂=CF₂) had polymerized to a white powder. During World War II it was applied as a corrosion-resistant coating to protect metal equipment used in the production of radioactive material. DuPont released its trademarked Teflon-coated nonstick cookware in 1960.

PTFE is made from the gaseous monomer tetrafluoroethylene, using high-pressure suspension or solution methods in the presence of free-radical initiators. The polymer is similar in structure to polyethylene, consisting of a carbon chain with two fluorine atoms bonded to each carbon:

The fluorine atoms surround the carbon chain like a sheath, giving a chemically inert and relatively dense product with very strong carbon-fluorine bonds. The polymer is inert to most chemicals, does not melt below 300° C (575° F), and has a very low coefficient of friction. These properties allow it to be used for bushings and bearings that require no lubricant, as liners for equipment used in the storage and transportation of strong acids and organic solvents, as electrical insulation under high-temperature conditions, and in its familiar application as a cooking surface that does not require the use of fats or oils.

Fabrication of PTFE products is difficult because the material does not flow readily even at elevated temperatures. Compression molding of fine powders in the presence of volatile lubricants is one successful technique. In the coating of metal cooking surfaces, aqueous dispersions of fine particles are used.

Fluoroelastomers

A number of fluorinated polymers or copolymers having elastomeric properties are produced that incorporate the monomers vinylidene fluoride (CH₂=CF₂), hexafluoropropylene (CF₂=CFCF₃), and chlorotrifluoroethylene (CF₂=CFCl) in addition to tetrafluoroethylene. These elastomers have outstanding resistance to oxygen, ozone, heat, and swelling by oils, chlorinated solvents, and fuels. With service temperatures up to 250° C (480° F), they are the elastomers of choice for use in industrial and aerospace equipment subjected to severe conditions. However, they have a relatively high density, are swollen by ketones and ethers, are attacked by steam, and become glassy at temperatures not far below room temperature. Also, their low reactivity makes interlinking the polymer chains a long and complex process. Principal applications are as temperature-resistant O-rings, seals, and gaskets.

Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)

Polyvinyl fluoride is frequently extruded into transparent film of excellent weatherability; as such, it is laminated as a protective layer onto outdoor surfaces such as solar collectors. Polyvinylidene fluoride is made into injection-molded objects and extruded films for electrical applications. Polyvinylidene fluoride is also piezoelectric (changing its electrical charge in response to pressure and vice versa), making it useful as a sensor in some devices.

Polybutadiene (butadiene rubber, BR)

Butadiene (CH₂=CH―CH=CH₂) is produced by the dehydrogenation of butene or butane or by the cracking of petroleum distillates. It is polymerized to polybutadiene by solution methods, using anionic or Ziegler-Natta initiators. Like the other diene polymers, polybutadiene is isomeric—it can be produced with more than one molecular structure. A common elastomeric structure is cis-1,4 polybutadiene, whose repeating unit has the following structure:

Two other structures are the trans-1,4 and the 1,2 “side vinyl” isomers.

Polybutadienes are made either with high cis content (95 to 97 percent) or with only 35 percent cis content along with 55 percent trans and 10 percent “side vinyl.” The properties of the two polymers are quite different. Although both display much higher resilience than other elastomers, the resilience of the mixed-isomer polymer is somewhat lower. In addition, the mixed polymer never crystallizes, so that, without reinforcing fillers such as carbon black, its products are weak and brittle. Both materials show good abrasion resistance. Much of the polybutadiene produced is blended with natural rubber (polyisoprene) or with styrene-butadiene rubber to give improved resilience and lower rolling resistance. More than half of all usage is in tires; other applications are footwear, wire and cable insulation, and conveyor belts.

Polychloroprene (chloroprene rubber, CR)

Polychloroprene is the polymer name for the synthetic rubber known as neoprene (a proprietary trade name of DuPont that has become generic). One of the first successful synthetic elastomers, neoprene was first prepared in 1931 by Arnold Collins, a chemist in Wallace Hume Carothers’ research group at DuPont, while he was investigating by-products of divinylacetylene. It is a good general-purpose rubber, but it is limited to special-properties applications because of its high cost.

Polychloroprene is prepared by emulsion polymerization of chloroprene, or 2-chlorobutadiene,

which is obtained by the chlorination of butadiene or isoprene. Of the several structures adopted by the chloroprene repeating unit, the most common is trans-1,4 polychloroprene, which can be represented as follows:

This polymer tends to crystallize and harden slowly at temperatures below about 10° C (50° F). It also crystallizes on stretching, so that cured components are strong even without fillers. Because the double bond between the carbon atoms is shielded by the pendant atoms and CH₂ groups, the molecular interlinking necessary for producing a cured rubber is usually effected through the chlorine atom. The presence of chlorine in the molecular structure causes this elastomer to resist swelling by hydrocarbon oils, to have greater resistance to oxidation and ozone attack, and to possess a measure of flame resistance. Principal applications are in products such as hoses, belts, springs, flexible mounts, and gaskets where resistance to oil, heat, flame, and abrasion are required.

Polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR; isoprene rubber, IR)

Of the several isomeric forms that polyisoprene can adopt, NR consists almost exclusively of the cis-1,4 polymer, the structure of which is shown below:

The uniqueness of NR lies in its remarkable extensibility and toughness, as evidenced by its ability to be stretched repeatedly to seven or eight times its original length. The polymer chains crystallize readily on stretching, lending greater strength, so that NR is a self-reinforcing material. In its natural state, however, NR is greatly affected by temperature: it crystallizes on cooling, taking only several hours to do so at −25° C (−13° F), and it becomes tacky and inelastic above approximately 50° C (120° F). In addition, like other diene elastomers, it is swollen and weakened by hydrocarbon oils, and it reacts with oxygen and ozone in the atmosphere, leading to rupture of the polymer molecules and softening of the material over time. These disadvantages are overcome to a great extent by the vulcanizing and compounding processes reviewed in the article elastomer (natural and synthetic rubber).

IR is manufactured by solution polymerization methods, using both anionic and Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The product is at most 98 percent cis-1,4 polyisoprene, and therefore its structure is not as regular as NR. As a result, it does not crystallize as readily as the natural material, and it is not as strong or as tacky in the raw (unvulcanized) state. In all other respects, though, IR is a complete substitute for NR. For both IR and NR, the principal usage is in tires, although these elastomers are also preferred for rubber springs and mountings owing to their good fatigue resistance and high resilience. Footwear is an important application, and NR is still used in adhesives (such as rubber cement).

Another form of polyisoprene, trans-1,4 polymer, is the dominant isomer in gutta-percha and balata, two materials that, like natural rubber, are derived from the milky exudate of certain trees. This polymer does not melt below approximately 70° C (160° F) and is partially crystalline at normal temperatures. Therefore, unlike natural rubber, gutta-percha and balata are tough, hard, and leathery—properties that led to their traditional use in sheathings for underwater cables and golf balls. The trans polymer can also be synthesized with Ziegler-Natta catalysts, yielding a synthetic balata that is also employed in golf ball covers.

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)

ABS is a graft copolymer made by dissolving styrene-butadiene copolymer in a mixture of acrylonitrile and styrene monomers, then polymerizing the monomers with free-radical initiators in an emulsion process. Grafting of acrylonitrile and styrene onto the copolymer chains occurs by chain-transfer reactions. ABS was patented in 1948 and introduced to commercial markets by the Borg-Warner Corporation in 1954.

ABS is a tough, heat-resistant thermoplastic. The three structural units provide a balance of properties, the butadiene groups (predominantly trans-1,4) imparting good impact strength, the acrylonitrile affording heat resistance, and the styrene units giving rigidity. ABS is widely used for appliance and telephone housings, luggage, sporting helmets, pipe fittings, and automotive parts.

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)

SBR is a product of synthetic rubber research that took place in Europe and the United States under the impetus of natural rubber shortages during World Wars I and II. By 1929 German chemists at I.G. Farbenindustrie AG developed a series of synthetic elastomers by copolymerization of two compounds in the presence of a catalyst. This series was called Buna, after butadiene, one of the copolymers, and sodium (natrium), the polymerization catalyst. During World War II the United States, cut off from its East Asian supplies of natural rubber, developed a number of synthetics, including a copolymer of butadiene and styrene. This general-purpose rubber, which had been called Buna S by the German chemists Eduard Tschunkur and Walter Bock, who had patented it in 1933, was given the wartime designation GR-S (Government Rubber-Styrene) by the Americans, who improved upon its production. Now known as SBR, this copolymer has become the most important synthetic rubber, representing about one-half of total world production.

A mixture of approximately 75 percent butadiene and 25 percent styrene, SBR is polymerized either in an emulsion process in the presence of free-radical initiators or in a solution process under anionic conditions. The styrene and butadiene repeating units are arranged in a random manner along the polymer chain, as shown schematically in Figure 3B. In the emulsion product, most of the butadiene units are trans-1,4 polymer, with approximately 15 percent being cis-1,4 and another 15 percent being 1,2 polymer. The solution product contains more cis-1,4 units and is somewhat purer because it contains no emulsifying residue; in addition, the molecular weight distribution is narrower, and the strength of the cured product is greater.

SBR is weak and unusable without reinforcement by carbon black, but with carbon black it is strong and abrasion-resistant. Like natural rubber, it is swollen and weakened by hydrocarbon oils and attacked by atmospheric oxygen and ozone. In SBR, however, the main effect of oxidation is increased interlinking of the polymer chains, so that the rubber tends to harden with age instead of softening.

Because of its excellent abrasion resistance, SBR is widely used in automobile and truck tires, more so than any other synthetic rubber. A large amount of SBR is produced in latex form as a rubbery adhesive for use in applications such as carpet backing. Other applications are in belting, flooring, wire and cable insulation, and footwear.

Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)

Styrene and acrylonitrile, in a ratio of approximately 70 to 30, are copolymerized under emulsion, bulk, or solution conditions using free-radical initiators. The copolymer is a rigid, transparent plastic that displays better resistance to heat and solvents than does polystyrene alone. Much of the SAN produced is blended with ABS. Principal uses are in automotive parts, battery cases, kitchenware, appliances, furniture, and medical supplies.

Nitrile rubber (nitrile-butadiene rubber, NBR)

Like SBR, nitrile rubber is a product of synthetic rubber research during and between the two world wars. Buna N, a group of acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymers, was patented in the United States in 1934 by IG Farben chemists Erich Konrad and Eduard Tschunkur. Produced in the United States during World War II as GR-N (Government Rubber-Nitrile), it has become valued for its outstanding resistance to oil.

NBR is prepared in emulsion processes using free-radical initiators. The amount of acrylonitrile present in the copolymer varies from 15 to 50 percent. With increasing acrylonitrile content the rubber shows higher strength, greater resistance to swelling by hydrocarbon oils, and lower permeability to gases—although the glass transition temperature is also raised, with the result that the rubber is less flexible at lower temperatures. The main uses of NBR are in fuel hoses, gaskets, rollers, and other products in which oil resistance is required. It is also employed in textiles, where its application to woven and nonwoven fabrics improves the finish and waterproofing properties.

A hydrogenated version, abbreviated as HNBR, is also highly resistant to thermal and oxidative deterioration and remains flexible at lower temperatures.

Butyl rubber (isobutylene-isoprene rubber, IIR)

Butyl rubber is a copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene that was first produced by William Sparks and Robert Thomas at the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) (now Exxon Corporation) in 1937. Earlier attempts to produce synthetic rubbers had involved the polymerization of dienes such as isoprene and butadiene, but Sparks and Thomas defied convention by using other starting materials. They copolymerized isobutylene, an olefin (that is, a hydrocarbon containing only one double bond in each molecule), with small amounts—e.g., less than 2 percent—of isoprene. As a diene, isoprene provided the extra double bond required to cross-link the otherwise inert polymer chains, which were essentially polyisobutylene. Before experimental difficulties were resolved, butyl rubber was called “futile butyl,” but with improvements it enjoyed wide acceptance for its low permeability to gases and its excellent resistance to oxygen and ozone at normal temperatures. During World War II the copolymer was called GR-I, for Government Rubber-Isobutylene.

IIR is produced by copolymerizing isobutylene in solution with low concentrations (1.5 to 4.5 percent) of isoprene. Both isoprene and isobutylene are usually obtained by the thermal cracking of natural gas or the lighter fractions of petroleum. The polymer repeating units have the following structures:

Because the base polymer, polyisobutylene, is stereoregular (that is, with its pendant groups arranged in a regular order along the polymer chains), and because the chains crystallize rapidly on stretching, IIR containing only a small amount of isoprene is strong like natural rubber and polychloroprene—even without carbon-black reinforcement. Butyl rubber shows an unusually low rate of molecular motion well above the glass transition temperature, probably because of restricted flexibility of the molecules. This lack of motion is reflected in the copolymer’s unusually low permeability to gases as well as its outstanding resistance to attack by ozone. IIR is relatively resistant to oxidation because there are few unsaturated groups per molecule.

Because of its excellent air retention, butyl rubber quickly replaced natural rubber as the preferred material for inner tubes in all but the largest sizes. It also plays an important part in the inner liners of tubeless tires. (All-butyl tires have not proved successful because of poor tread durability.) It is also used for many other automobile components, such as window strips, because of its resistance to oxidation. Its resistance to heat allows its application in tire manufacture, where butyl rubber forms the bladders that retain the steam or hot water used to vulcanize tires.

Bromine or chlorine can be added to the small isoprene fraction of IIR to make BIIR and CIIR (known as halobutyls). The properties of these polymers are similar to those of IIR, but they can be cured more rapidly and with different and smaller amounts of curative agents. As a result, BIIR and CIIR can be cocured more readily in contact with other elastomers making up a rubber product.

Styrene-butadiene and styrene-isoprene block copolymers

These “triblock” copolymers, also known as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) and styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS) rubber, consist of polystyrene sequences (or blocks) at each end of the chain and a butadiene or isoprene sequence in the centre. Polystyrene end-blocks of adjacent chains collect together in small “domains,” so that clusters of polystyrene are distributed through a network of butadiene or isoprene. Such a structure makes SBS and SIS into thermoplastic elastomers, blends that exhibit the elasticity and resilience of polybutadiene or polyisoprene along with the permanence of the fixed ends. (Thermoplastic elastomers are described in the article elastomer [natural and synthetic rubber].) Like all thermoplastic elastomers, SBS and SIS are less resilient than permanently interlinked molecular solids, and they do not recover as efficiently from deformation. Also, they soften and flow as the glass transition temperature of polystyrene (about 100° C, or 212° F) is approached, and they are completely dissolved (and not merely softened) by suitable liquids. Nevertheless, SBS and SIS are easily processed and reprocessed, owing to the thermoplastic properties of polystyrene, and they are remarkably strong at room temperature. They are frequently used for injection-molded parts, as hot-melt adhesives (especially in shoes), and as an additive to improve the properties of bitumen.

Ethylene-propylene copolymers

There are two major types of ethylene-propylene copolymers with elastomeric properties: those made with the two monomers alone and those made with small amounts (approximately 5 percent) of a diene—usually ethylidene norbornene or 1,4-hexadiene. Both copolymers are prepared in solution using Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The former are known as EPM (ethylene-propylene monomer) and the latter as EPDM (ethylene-propylene-diene monomer). The copolymers contain approximately 60 percent by weight ethylene. A pronounced advantage of EPDM is that the residual carbon-carbon double bond (i.e., the double bond that remains after polymerization) is attached to the polymer chain rather than being made part of it. Carbon-carbon double bonds are quite reactive. For example, ozone in the atmosphere adds quickly to a double bond to form an unstable product that spontaneously decomposes. Regular diene polymers, such as natural rubber or styrene-butadiene rubber, have many double bonds in the main chain, so that, when one double bond is attacked, the entire molecule is broken. EPDM, with the double bonds located in the side groups, is much less susceptible to degradation by weathering and sunlight, because any breaking of the double bonds by ozonolysis, thermal deterioration, or oxidation leaves the main chains intact. In addition, some crystallinity appears to be induced by stretching, so that even without fillers vulcanized ethylene-propylene copolymers are quite strong. However, like other hydrocarbon elastomers, the ethylene-propylene copolymers are swollen and weakened by hydrocarbon oils.

The principal uses of EPM are in automobile parts and as an impact modifier for polypropylene. EPDM is employed in flexible seals for automobiles, wire and cable insulation, weather stripping, tire sidewalls, hoses, and roofing film.

EPDM is also mixed with polypropylene to make a thermoplastic elastomer. These polymer blends, which usually contain 30 to 40 mole percent polypropylene, are rubbery solids, though they are not nearly as springy and elastic as covalently interlinked elastomers. However, owing to the thermoplastic properties of polypropylene, they can be processed and reprocessed, and they are resistant to oxidation, ozone attack, and weathering. They are therefore used in such low-severity applications as shoes, flexible covers, and sealing strips. The trademarked product Santoprene, produced by Advanced Elastomer Systems, L.P., is an example.

Some block copolymers of ethylene and propylene, called polyallomers, are marketed. Unlike EPM and EPDM, which have a relatively amorphous morphology, the polyallomers are crystalline and exhibit properties of high-impact plastics.

Styrene-maleic anhydride copolymer

Styrene and maleic anhydride can be copolymerized in a bulk process using free-radical initiators to yield an alternating-block copolymer, as is illustrated schematically in Figure 3C. The copolymer repeating unit can be represented as:

In practice, most of the copolymers contain about 5 to 20 percent maleic anhydride, depending on the application, and some grades also contain small amounts of butadiene as a comonomer. The plastic is used in automobile parts, small appliances, and food-service trays.