Causes of auroral displays
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- atmosphere
The most common type of aurora is associated with bombardment of the atmosphere by electrons with energies of up to 10,000 electron volts. The energy source for these electrons originates ultimately from the Sun. It is propagated through space by the solar wind along bundled, ropelike magnetic fields that form temporarily between the Sun and Earth’s magnetosphere, most probably to the plasma sheet. Energetic electrons enter the atmosphere along magnetic field lines. They produce a shower of secondary and tertiary electrons, approximately one for every 35 electron volts of energy in the primary stream. Primaries can propagate to altitudes as low as 100 km (60 miles). Most of the luminosity is produced, however, by low-energy secondary and tertiary electrons. Prominent emissions in the spectrum of this luminosity are associated with the red line of atomic oxygen at 633 nm, the green line of atomic oxygen at 558 nm, the first negative bands of ionized molecular nitrogen at 391 nm and 428 nm, and a host of emissions from atomic oxygen, molecular oxygen, ionized molecular oxygen, and molecular nitrogen. Many of these features are present also in the day and night airglow. They are most notable in auroras because of their intensity and the rapidity with which they switch on and off in response to changes in the flux and energy of incoming primaries. An aurora has a characteristic red colour if the energy of primaries is relatively low. Emission in this case is dominated by atomic oxygen and is confined for the most part to altitudes above 250 km (150 miles). If the energy of the primaries is high, an aurora has a greenish blue colour and extends downward to altitudes as low as 90 km (55 miles).
Auroral displays are also produced by bombardment of the atmosphere by energetic protons. Protons with energies of up to 200,000 electron volts are responsible for auroral activity in a diffuse belt that is equatorward of the main auroral zone. These protons can be detected from the ground by observation of Doppler-shifted radiation emitted by fast hydrogen atoms formed by charge transfer from atmospheric atoms and molecules. Protons also play a role at higher latitudes, especially at times following major solar flares. It is thought that the protons responsible for auroras at the polar caps are solar in origin. Associated energies may reach as high as one million electron volts, and particles may penetrate as deep as 80 km (50 miles). Polar cap auroras can provide a significant transient source of mesospheric and stratospheric nitric oxide (NO). They can be responsible for small but detectable short-term fluctuations in the abundance of stratospheric ozone.
Van Allen radiation belts
The magnetosphere includes two doughnut-shaped radiation belts, or zones, centred on the Equator that are occupied by appreciable numbers of energetic protons and electrons trapped in the outermost reaches of the atmosphere. No real gap exists between the two zones; they actually merge gradually, with the flux of charged particles showing two regions of maximum density. The inner belt extends from roughly 1,000 to 5,000 km (600 to 3,000 miles) above the terrestrial surface and the outer belt from some 15,000 to 25,000 km (9,300 to 15,500 miles). The belts were named in honour of James A. Van Allen, the American physicist who discovered them in 1958. His was a triumph of serendipity—he detected the presence of the trapped particles with a Geiger counter designed to measure the flux of cosmic rays in space. It was the first great discovery of the space age and was achieved by combining data obtained with instruments carried by three of the earliest United States scientific satellites—Explorer 1, Explorer 4, and Pioneer 3.
The flux of protons crossing a square centimetre of surface in the inner Van Allen belt can be as large as 20,000 per second, higher than the flux of cosmic radiation in space by a factor of 10,000. Protons in the inner belt have energies in excess of 7 × 108 electron volts, enough to enable them to penetrate about 10 cm (4 inches) of lead. Spacecraft flying through the belts must be protected; otherwise, their electronic components would be subjected to irreparable damages.
The high-energy protons in the inner Van Allen belt are thought to originate from the decay of neutrons that are produced by the interaction of the atmosphere with energetic cosmic rays of galactic origin. Some of these short-lived neutrons—they have a lifetime of 12 minutes—are ejected upward. A fraction of them decay into energetic protons and electrons as they pass through the region occupied by the Van Allen belts. These protons and electrons become trapped and travel in spiral paths along the flux lines of Earth’s magnetic field. The particles reverse their direction at intermediate altitudes (about 500 km [300 miles]) and low latitudes because, as the particles approach either of the magnetic poles, the increase in the strength of the field causes them to be reflected back toward the other pole. Collisions with atoms in the thin atmosphere eventually remove the particles from the belts, but they generally survive for about 10 years. This relatively long lifetime allows particles to accumulate in the radiation belts, providing high fluxes despite the small magnitude of the intrinsic source.
The inner belt merges gradually with the outer belt, which extends from about two to eight Earth radii. A portion of the ionization in the outer belt is derived from the solar wind, as demonstrated by the presence of helium ions in addition to protons. Unlike the outer zone, the inner belt contains no helium ions, while it has been established that helium ions account for about 10 percent of solar wind. The flux of electrons in the outer belt can vary by orders of magnitude over intervals as short as a few days. These changes appear to correlate with times of strong magnetic disturbances. They are not, however, as yet well understood.
Michael B. McElroy The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica