Other relationships
- Related Topics:
- grammar
- stylistics
- comparative linguistics
- historical linguistics
- psycholinguistics
- On the Web:
- CiteSeerX - Linguistics at the beginning of the 2ISt century (PDF) (Mar. 30, 2025)
Anthropological linguistics
The fundamental concern of anthropological linguistics is to investigate the relationship between language and culture. To what extent the structure of a particular language is determined by or determines the form and content of the culture with which it is associated remains a controversial question. Vocabulary differences between languages correlate obviously enough with cultural differences, but even here the interdependence of language and culture is not so strong that one can argue from the presence or absence of a corresponding cultural difference. For example, from the fact that English—unlike French, German, Russian, and many other languages—distinguishes lexically between monkeys and apes, one cannot conclude that there is an associated difference in the cultural significance attached to these animals by English-speaking societies. Some of the major grammatical distinctions in certain languages may have originated in culturally important categories (e.g., the distinction between an animate and an inanimate gender). But they seem to endure independently of any continuing cultural significance. The “Whorfian hypothesis” (the thesis that one’s thought and even perception are determined by the language one happens to speak), in its strong form at least, is no longer debated as vigorously as it was a few years ago. Anthropologists continue to draw upon linguistics for the assistance it can give them in the analysis of such topics as the structure of kinship. A later development, but one that has not so far produced any very substantial results, is the application of notions derived from generative grammar to the analysis of ritual and other kinds of culturally prescribed behaviour.
Computational linguistics
By computational linguistics is meant no more than the use of electronic digital computers in linguistic research. At a theoretically trivial level, computers are employed to scan texts and to produce, more rapidly and more reliably than was possible in the past, such valuable aids to linguistic and stylistic research as word lists, frequency counts, and concordances. Theoretically more interesting, though much more difficult, is the automatic grammatical analysis of texts by computer. Considerable progress was made in this area by research groups working on machine translation and information retrieval in the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and a few other countries in the decade between the mid-1950s and the mid-1960s. But much of the original impetus for this work disappeared, for a time at least, in part because of the realization that the theoretical problems involved in machine translation are much more difficult than they were at first thought to be and in part as a consequence of a loss of interest among linguists in the development of discovery procedures. Whether automatic syntactic analysis and fully automatic high-quality machine translation are even feasible in principle remains a controversial question.
Mathematical linguistics
What is commonly referred to as mathematical linguistics comprises two areas of research: the study of the statistical structure of texts and the construction of mathematical models of the phonological and grammatical structure of languages. These two branches of mathematical linguistics, which may be termed statistical and algebraic linguistics, respectively, are typically distinct. Attempts have been made to derive the grammatical rules of languages from the statistical structure of texts written in those languages, but such attempts are generally thought to have been not only unsuccessful so far in practice but also, in principle, doomed to failure. That languages have a statistical structure is a fact well known to cryptographers. Within linguistics, it is of considerable typological interest to compare languages from a statistical point of view (the ratio of consonants to vowels, of nouns to verbs, and so on). Statistical considerations are also of value in stylistics.
Algebraic linguistics derives principally from the work of Chomsky in the field of generative grammar (see above Chomsky’s grammar). In his earliest work Chomsky described three different models of grammar—finite-state grammar, phrase-structure grammar, and transformational grammar—and compared them in terms of their capacity to generate all and only the sentences of natural languages and, in doing so, to reflect in an intuitively satisfying manner the underlying formal principles and processes. Other models have also been investigated, and it has been shown that certain different models are equivalent in generative power to phrase-structure grammars. The problem is to construct a model that has all the formal properties required to handle the processes found to be operative in languages but that prohibits rules that are not required for linguistic description.
Stylistics
The term stylistics is employed in a variety of senses by different linguists. In its widest interpretation it is understood to deal with every kind of synchronic variation in language other than what can be ascribed to differences of regional dialect. At its narrowest interpretation it refers to the linguistic analysis of literary texts. One of the aims of stylistics in this sense is to identify those features of a text that give it its individual stamp and mark it as the work of a particular author. Another is to identify the linguistic features of the text that produce a certain aesthetic response in the reader. The aims of stylistics are the traditional aims of literary criticism. What distinguishes stylistics as a branch of linguistics (for those who regard it as such) is the fact that it draws upon the methodological and theoretical principles of modern linguistics.
Applied linguistics
In the sense in which the term applied linguistics is most commonly used nowadays it is restricted to the application of linguistics to language teaching. Much of the expansion of linguistics as a subject of teaching and research in the second half of the 20th century came about because of its value, actual and potential, for writing better language textbooks and devising more efficient methods of teaching languages. Linguistics is also widely held to be relevant to the training of speech therapists and teachers of the deaf. Outside the field of education in the narrower sense, applied linguistics (and, more particularly, applied sociolinguistics) has an important part to play in what is called language planning—i.e., in advising governments, especially in recently created states, as to which language or dialect should be made the official language of the country and how it should be standardized.
John LyonsDialectology and linguistic geography
Dialect geography
Dialect study as a discipline—dialectology—dates from the first half of the 19th century, when local dialect dictionaries and dialect grammars first appeared in western Europe. Soon thereafter, dialect maps were developed; most often they depicted the division of a language’s territory into regional dialects. The 19th-century rise of nationalism, coupled with the Romantic view of dialects and folklore as manifestations of the ethnic soul, furnished a great impetus for dialectology.
Early dialect studies
The first dialect dictionaries and grammars were most often written by scholars describing the dialect of their birthplace or by fieldworkers whose main method of investigation was free conversation with speakers of the dialect, usually older persons and, preferably, those who showed the least degree of literacy and who had travelled as little as possible. Many of these grammars and dictionaries recorded dialectal traits that deviated from the standard language. In the second half of the 19th century, when historical and comparative linguistic study was flourishing, it became customary to focus attention on the fate of particular elements of the archaic language in a given dialect—e.g., the changes that Latin vowels and consonants underwent when used in different positions in a particular Romance dialect.
With the accumulation of dialectal data, investigators became increasingly conscious of the inadequacy of viewing dialects as internally consistent units that were sharply differentiated from neighbouring dialects. It became more and more clear that each dialectal element or phenomenon refused to stay neatly within the borders of a single dialect area and that each had its own isogloss; consequently, maps of dialects would have to be replaced by maps showing the distribution of each particular feature. While sound scientifically, the preparation and compilation of such maps, called linguistic atlases, is a difficult, costly, voluminous, and time-consuming job.
Dialect atlases
Dialect atlases are compiled on the basis of investigations of the dialects of a large number of places; a questionnaire provides uniform data. There are two basic methods of data collection: fieldwork and survey by correspondence. Fieldwork, in which a trained investigator transcribes dialectal forms directly (or on tape), affords more precise data and enables the questionnaire to include a greater number of diverse questions; but it implies a necessarily limited number of points to be covered. The advantage of the correspondence method lies in its ability to encompass more points at less cost and with less time expended in gathering the data. On the other hand, rural schoolteachers, normally the persons who complete such questionnaires, can answer only a relatively small number of questions and often imperfectly.
The first large-scale enterprise in linguistic geography was the preparation of the German linguistic atlas. In the 1880s, the initiator of this great undertaking, Georg Wenker, composed 40 test sentences that illustrated most of the important ways in which dialects differed and sent them to schoolmasters in over 40,000 places in the German Empire. The sentences were to be translated into the local dialect. Publication of the results was not begun until 1926; the main cause of the delay was the enormous quantity of material to be arranged and analyzed.
The famous French linguistic atlas of Jules Gilliéron and Edmond Edmont was based on a completely different concept. Using a questionnaire of about 2,000 words and phrases that Gilliéron had composed, Edmont surveyed 639 points in the French-speaking area. The atlas, compiled under the direction of Gilliéron, was published in fascicles from 1902 to 1912 and furnished both a strong stimulus and the basic model for work on linguistic atlases elsewhere in the world. European linguists, especially in Romance- and Germanic-speaking countries, were the first to participate in such atlas projects. One of the most significant contributions is the linguistic atlas of Italy and southern Switzerland by Karl Jaberg and Jakob Jud; it appeared from 1928 to 1940. Particularly noteworthy in its attention to precise definitions of meaning, this atlas often used illustrations and described objects and actions of village life denoted by the questionnaire’s words.
As early as 1905–06, a committee of Japanese dialectologists published the first linguistic atlas of Japan in two volumes, one devoted to phonology and one to morphology. Subsequent work was done on a new atlas of Japan as a whole and on several regional atlases. The extensive activity of Chinese specialists concentrated on descriptions of particular local and regional dialects. The Chinese situation was a peculiar one because of the enormous number of people who speak Chinese, the very significant dialectal differentiation (certain dialects, particularly those in the south of China, would be considered by Western standards as separate languages), and the nature of the Chinese script. Chinese characters do not represent sounds but concepts. Because of this, the written language can be read without difficulty in many different dialect areas, although its spoken form varies greatly from one region to another.
Because of the enormous size of the United States, atlas surveys were done by region. Between 1931 and 1933, fieldworkers under the direction of the linguist Hans Kurath surveyed 213 New England communities; the results were published in the Linguistic Atlas of New England (with 734 maps) in 1939–43. Based on the methodological experience of Jaberg and Jud in their atlas of Italy and southern Switzerland, this work involved systematic investigations not only among the relatively uneducated but also among better educated, more cultured informants and among the very well educated, cultured, and informed members of a community. Thus the dimension of social stratification of language was introduced into linguistic geography, and valuable material about regional linguistic standards became available. After 1933, fieldwork was extended to the other Atlantic states.
The most effective and thorough—as well as the most expensive—way of presenting data in linguistic atlases is by printing the actual responses to questionnaire items right on the maps. Phenomena of linguistic geography, however, are usually represented by geometric symbols or figures at the proper points on the map or, even more summarily, by the drawing of isoglosses (linguistic boundaries) or by shading or colouring the areas of particular features.
Only dialect atlases can furnish the complexity of data of the major dialectal phenomena in a multitude of geographic locations in a manner that both assures commensurability of the data and allows a panoramic examination of the whole gamut of data. The inventory of linguistic phenomena is so rich, however, that no one questionnaire can encompass it all. Moreover, the use of a questionnaire unavoidably brings about a schematization of answers that is lacking in spontaneity. For these reasons, other kinds of publications, such as dialect dictionaries or monographs based on extensive free conversation with speakers of local dialects, are indispensable complements to linguistic atlases.
The value and applications of dialectology
The scientific interest of dialectology lies in the fact that dialects are a valuable source of information about popular culture. They reflect not only the history of a language but, to a great extent, the ethnic, cultural, and even political history of a people as well. A knowledge of dialectal facts provides practical guidance to school systems that are trying to teach the standard language to an ever greater number of pupils.
In the 1930s the value of dialectology to the study of language types became apparent. Because dialects greatly outnumber standard languages, they provide a much greater variety of phenomena than languages and thus have become the main source of information about the types of phenomena possible in linguistic systems. Also, in some languages, but not in others, an extremely wide structural variation among dialects has been found. In the Balkan region, where two closely related Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, are spoken, dialects are found with synthetic declension (case endings, as in Latin) and analytic declension (use of prepositions and word order, as in English). In addition, there are among these dialects complex systems of verbal tenses contrasting with simple ones, as well as dialects with or without the dual number or the neuter gender. The dialects of Serbo-Croatian and Slovene also exhibit almost every type of prosodic structure (e.g., tone, stress, length) found in European languages. Some dialects differentiate long and short vowels or rising and falling accents, while others do not; and in some, but not all, of them stress fulfills a grammatical function. Of the several dozen vowel and diphthong sounds that occur in these dialects, only five are common to all of them; all the rest are restricted to relatively small areas. All of this rich variety contrasts sharply with the relative structural uniformity of the English language—not only in the United States but wherever it is spoken. (The outstanding exceptions are the creolized dialects, which are distinguished by far-reaching structural peculiarities.)
