Rotation about a moving axis
The general motion of a rigid body tumbling through space may be described as a combination of translation of the body’s centre of mass and rotation about an axis through the centre of mass. The linear momentum of the body of mass M is given by
where v c is the velocity of the centre of mass. Any change in the momentum is governed by Newton’s second law, which states that
where F is the net force acting on the body. The angular momentum of the body with respect to any reference point may be written as
where L c is the angular momentum of rotation about an axis through the centre of mass, r is a vector from the reference point to the centre of mass, and r × p is therefore the angular momentum associated with motion of the centre of mass, acting as if all the body’s mass were concentrated at that point. The quantity L c in equation (83) is sometimes called the body’s spin, and r × p is called the orbital angular momentum. Any change in the angular momentum of the body is given by the torque equation,
An example of a body that undergoes both translational and rotational motion is Earth, which rotates about an axis through its centre once per day while executing an orbit around the Sun once per year. Because the Sun exerts no torque on Earth with respect to its own centre, the orbital angular momentum of Earth is constant in time. However, the Sun does exert a small torque on Earth with respect to the planet’s centre, owing to the fact that Earth is not perfectly spherical. The result is a slow shifting of Earth’s axis of rotation, known as the precession of the equinoxes (see below).
The kinetic energy of a body that is both translating and rotating is given by
where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity of rotation about the axis through the centre of mass.
A common example of combined rotation and translation is rolling motion, as exhibited by a billiard ball rolling on a table, or a ball or cylinder rolling down an inclined plane. Consider the latter example, illustrated in . Motion is impelled by the force of gravity, which may be resolved into two components, F N , which is normal to the plane, and F p , which is parallel to it. In addition to gravity, friction plays an essential role. The force of friction, written as f, acts parallel to the plane, in opposition to the direction of motion, at the point of contact between the plane and the rolling body. If f is very small, the body will slide without rolling. If f is very large, it will prevent motion from occurring. The magnitude of f depends on the smoothness and composition of the body and the plane, and it is proportional to F N , the normal component of the force.
Consider a case in which f is just large enough to cause the body (sphere or cylinder) to roll without slipping. The motion may be analyzed from the point of view of an axis passing through the point of contact between the rolling body and the plane. Remarkably, the point of contact may always be regarded to be instantaneously at rest. To understand why, suppose that the rolling body has radius R and angular velocity ω about its centre-of-mass axis. Then, with respect to its own axis, each point on the circular cross section in moves with instantaneous tangential linear speed v c = Rω. In particular, the point of contact is moving backward with this speed relative to the centre of mass. But with respect to the inclined plane, the centre of mass is moving forward with exactly this same speed. The net effect of the two equal and opposite speeds is that the point of contact is always instantaneously at rest. Therefore, although friction acts at that point, no work is done by friction, so mechanical energy (potential plus kinetic) may be regarded as conserved.
With respect to the axis through the point of contact, the torque is equal to RF p , giving rise to an angular acceleration α given by I p α = RF p , where I p is the moment of inertia about the point-of-contact axis and can be determined by applying equation (80) relating moments of inertia about parallel axes (I p = I + MR 2). Thus,
From this result, the motion of the body is easily obtained using the fact that the velocity of the centre of mass is v c = Rω and hence the linear acceleration of the centre of mass is a c = Rα.
Notice that, although without friction no angular acceleration would occur, the force of friction does not affect the magnitude of α. Because friction does no work, this same result may be obtained by applying energy conservation. The situation also may be analyzed entirely from the point of view of the centre of mass. In that case, the torque is −fR, but f also provides a linear force on the body. The f may then be eliminated by using Newton’s second law and the fact that the torque equals the moment of inertia times the angular acceleration, once again leading to the same result.
One more interesting fact is hidden in the form of equation (86). The parallel component of the force of gravity is given by
where θ is the angle of inclination of the plane. The moment of inertia about the centre of mass of any body of mass M may be written
where k is a distance called the radius of gyration. Comparison to equation (79) shows that k is a measure of how far from the centre of mass the mass of the body is concentrated. Using equations (87) and (88) in equation (86), one finds that
Thus, the angular acceleration of a body rolling down a plane does not depend on its total mass, although it does depend on its shape and distribution of mass. The same may be said of a c , the linear acceleration of the centre of mass. The acceleration of a rolling ball, like the acceleration of a freely falling object, is independent of its mass. This observation helps to explain why Galileo was able to discover many of the basic laws of dynamics in gravity by studying the behaviour of balls rolling down inclined planes.
Motion in a rotating frame
Centrifugal force
According to the principle of Galilean relativity, if Newton’s laws are true in any reference frame, they are also true in any other frame moving at constant velocity with respect to the first one. Conversely, they do not appear to be true in any frame accelerated with respect to the first. Instead, in an accelerated frame, objects appear to have forces acting on them that are not in fact present. These are called pseudoforces, as described above. Since rotational motion is always accelerated motion, pseudoforces may always be observed in rotating frames of reference.
As one example, a frame of reference in which Earth is at rest must rotate once per year about the Sun. In this reference frame, the gravitational force attracting Earth toward the Sun appears to be balanced by an equal and opposite outward force that keeps Earth in stationary equilibrium. This outward pseudoforce, discussed above, is the centrifugal force.
The rotation of Earth about its own axis also causes pseudoforces for observers at rest on Earth’s surface. There is a centrifugal force, but it is much smaller than the force of gravity. Its effect is that, at the Equator, where it is largest, the gravitational acceleration g is about 0.5 percent smaller than at the poles, where there is no centrifugal force. This same centrifugal force is responsible for the fact that Earth is slightly nonspherical, bulging just a bit at the Equator.
Pseudoforces can have real consequences. The oceanic tides on Earth, for example, are a consequence of centrifugal forces in the Earth-Moon and Earth-Sun systems. The Moon appears to be orbiting Earth, but in reality both the Moon and Earth orbit their common centre of mass. The centre of mass of the Earth-Moon system is located inside Earth nearly three-fourths of the distance from the centre to the surface, or roughly 4,700 kilometres from the centre of Earth. Earth rotates about this point approximately once a month. The gravitational attraction of the Moon and the centrifugal force of this rotation are exactly balanced at the centre of Earth. At the surface of Earth closest to the Moon, the Moon’s gravity is stronger than the centrifugal force. The ocean’s waters, which are free to move in response to this unbalanced force, tend to build up a small bulge at that point. On the surface of Earth exactly opposite the Moon, the centrifugal force is stronger than the Moon’s gravity, and a small bulge of water tends to build up there as well. The water is correspondingly depleted at the points 90° on either side of these. Each day Earth rotates beneath these bulges and troughs, which remain stationary with respect to the Earth-Moon system. The result is two high tides and two low tides every day every place on Earth. The Sun has a similar effect, but of only about half the size; it increases or decreases the size of the tides depending on its relative alignment with Earth and the Moon.