Under most circumstances, there is no absolute dietary requirement for carbohydrates—simple sugars, complex carbohydrates such as starches, and the indigestible plant carbohydrates known as dietary fibre. Certain cells, such as brain cells, require the simple carbohydrate glucose as fuel. If dietary carbohydrate is insufficient, glucose synthesis depends on the breakdown of amino acids derived from body protein and dietary protein and the compound glycerol, which is derived from fat. Long-term carbohydrate inadequacy results in increased production of organic compounds called ketones (a condition known as ketosis), which imparts a distinctive sweet odour to the breath. Ketosis and other untoward effects of a very-low-carbohydrate diet can be prevented by the daily consumption of 50 to 100 grams of carbohydrate; however, obtaining at least half of the daily energy intake from carbohydrates is recommended and is typical of human diets, corresponding to at least 250 grams of carbohydrate (1,000 calories in a 2,000-calorie diet). A varied diet containing fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole-grain cereals, which are all abundant in carbohydrates, also provides a desirable intake of dietary fibre.
Essential fatty acids
There is also a minimum requirement for fat—not for total fat, but only for the fatty acids linoleic acid (a so-called omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid). Deficiencies of these two fatty acids have been seen in hospitalized patients fed exclusively with intravenous fluids containing no fat for weeks, patients with medical conditions affecting fat absorption, infants given formulas low in fat, and young children fed nonfat milk or low-fat diets. Symptoms of deficiency include dry skin, hair loss, and impaired wound healing. Essential fatty acid requirements—a few grams a day—can be met by consuming approximately a tablespoon of polyunsaturated plant oils daily. Fatty fish also provides a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids. Even individuals following a low-fat diet generally consume sufficient fat to meet requirements.
Vitamins
Although deficiency diseases have been described in laboratory animals and humans deprived of single vitamins, in human experience multiple deficiencies are usually present simultaneously. The eight B-complex vitamins function in coordination in numerous enzyme systems and metabolic pathways; thus, a deficiency of one may affect the functioning of others.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable blindness in children and is a major problem in the developing world, especially in Africa and Southeast Asia; in the poorest countries hundreds of thousands of children become blind each year due to a deficiency of the vitamin. Even a mild deficiency can impair immune function, thereby reducing resistance to disease. Night blindness is an early sign of vitamin A deficiency, followed by abnormal dryness of the eye and ultimately scarring of the cornea, a condition known as xerophthalmia. Other symptoms include dry skin, hardening of epithelial cells elsewhere in the body (such as mucous membranes), and impaired growth and development. In many areas where vitamin A deficiency is endemic, the incidence is being reduced by giving children a single large dose of vitamin A every six months. A genetically modified form of rice containing beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, has the potential to reduce greatly the incidence of vitamin A deficiency, but the use of this so-called golden rice is controversial.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D (also known as vitamin D hormone) is synthesized in the body in a series of steps, starting in the skin by the action of sunlight’s ultraviolet rays on a precursor compound; thus, without adequate food sources of vitamin D, a deficiency of the vitamin can occur when exposure to sunlight is limited. Lack of vitamin D in children causes rickets, a disease characterized by inadequate mineralization of bone, growth retardation, and skeletal deformities such as bowed legs. The adult form of rickets, known as osteomalacia, results in weak muscles as well as weak bones. Inadequate vitamin D may also contribute to the thinning of bones seen in osteoporosis. Individuals with limited sun exposure (including women who completely cover their bodies for religious reasons), elderly or homebound persons, and those with dark skin, particularly those who live in northern latitudes, are at risk of vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D is found in very few foods naturally; thus fortification of milk and other foods (e.g., margarine, cereals, and breads) with the vitamin has helped protect those populations in which sun exposure is inadequate. Supplemental vitamin D also may help protect against bone fractures in the elderly, who make and activate vitamin D less efficiently even if exposed to sunlight.
Vitamin E
Vitamin Edeficiency is rare in humans, although it may develop in premature infants and in people with impaired fat absorption or metabolism. In the former, fragility of red blood cells (hemolysis) is seen; in the latter, where deficiency is more prolonged, neuromuscular dysfunction involving the spinal cord and retina may result in loss of reflexes, impaired balance and coordination, muscle weakness, and visual disturbances. No specific metabolic function has been established for vitamin E; however, it is an important part of the antioxidant system that inhibits lipid peroxidation—i.e., it protects cells and their membranes against the damaging effects of free radicals (reactive oxygen and nitrogen species) that are produced metabolically or enter the body from the environment. The requirement for vitamin E is increased with increasing consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids. People who smoke or are subjected to air pollution may also need more of the vitamin to protect against oxidative damage to the lungs.