A desirable dietary intake of the minerals generally falls in a fairly narrow range. Because of interactions, a high intake of one mineral may adversely affect the absorption or utilization of another. Excessive intake from food alone is unlikely, but consumption of fortified foods or supplements increases the chance of toxicity. Furthermore, environmental or occupational exposure to potentially toxic levels of minerals presents additional risks for certain populations.
Widespread calcium supplementation, primarily by children who do not drink milk and by women hoping to prevent osteoporosis, has raised concerns about possible adverse consequences of high calcium intake. A major concern has been kidney stones (nephrolithiasis), the majority of which are composed of a calcium oxalate compound. For years, a low-calcium diet was recommended for people at risk of developing kidney stones, despite disappointing effectiveness and a fair amount of research challenging the approach. However, a recent study has provided strong evidence that a diet relatively low in sodium and animal protein with normal amounts of calcium (1,200 mg per day) is much more effective in preventing recurrent stone formation than was the traditional low-calcium diet. In fact, dietary calcium may be protective against kidney stones because it helps bind oxalate in the intestine. Constipation is a common side effect of high calcium intake, but daily consumption of up to 2,500 mg is considered safe for adults and for children at least one year old.
The use of magnesium salts in medications, such as antacids and laxatives, may result in diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramps. Impaired kidney function renders an individual more susceptible to magnesium toxicity. Excess magnesium intake is unlikely from foods alone.
High-dose iron supplements, commonly used to treat iron deficiency anemia, may cause constipation and other gastrointestinal effects. A daily iron intake of up to 45 mg presents a low risk of gastrointestinal distress. Acute toxicity and death from ingestion of iron supplements is a major poisoning hazard for young children. In people with the genetic disorder hereditary hemochromatosis, a disease characterized by the overabsorption of iron, or in those who have repeated blood transfusions, iron can build up to dangerous levels, leading to severe organ damage, particularly of the liver and heart. It is considered prudent for men and postmenopausal women to avoid iron supplements and high iron intakes from fortified foods. Toxicity from dietary iron has been reported in South Africa and Zimbabwe in people consuming a traditional beer with an extremely high iron content.
Excess zinc has been reported to cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. Chronic intake of large amounts of zinc may interfere with the body’s utilization of copper, impair immune response, and reduce the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (the so-called good cholesterol). A safe intake of 40 mg of zinc daily is unlikely to be exceeded by food alone, although it may be exceeded by zinc lozenges or supplements, which are widely used despite a lack of data about their safety or efficacy.
Selenium is toxic in large amounts. Selenosis (chronic selenium toxicity) results in symptoms such as gastrointestinal and nervous system disturbances, brittleness and loss of hair and nails, a garliclike odour to the breath, and skin rash. There also have been reports of acute toxicity and death from ingestion of gram quantities of the mineral. Excess selenium can be harmful whether ingested as selenomethionine, the main form found in food, or in the inorganic forms usually found in supplements. A daily intake of up to 400 μg from all sources most likely poses no risk of selenium toxicity.
Impaired thyroid gland function, goitre, and other adverse effects may result from high intakes of iodine from food, iodized salt, or pharmaceutical preparations intended to prevent or treat iodine deficiency or other disorders. Although most people are unlikely to exceed safe levels, individuals with certain conditions, such as autoimmune thyroid disease, are particularly sensitive to excess iodine intake.
While the teeth are developing and before they erupt, excess fluoride ingestion can cause mottled tooth enamel; however, this is only a cosmetic effect. In adults, excess fluoride intake is associated with effects ranging from increased bone mass to joint pain and stiffness and, in extreme cases, crippling skeletal fluorosis. Even in communities where water supplies naturally provide fluoride levels several times higher than recommended, skeletal fluorosis is extremely rare.
High intakes of phosphorus (as phosphate) may affect calcium metabolism adversely and interfere with the absorption of trace elements such as iron, copper, and zinc. However, even with the consumption of phosphate additives in a variety of foods and in cola beverages, exceeding safe levels is unlikely. Manganese toxicity, with central nervous system damage and symptoms similar to Parkinson disease, is a well-known occupational hazard of inhaling manganese dust, but again, it is not likely to come from the diet. Similarly, copper toxicity is unlikely to result from excessive dietary intake, except in individuals with hereditary or acquired disorders of copper metabolism.