Electrophilic substitution at unsaturated carbon centres
Because of its wide applicability, particularly to aromatic systems, electrophilic substitution is an important reaction. Reaction by any one of several mechanisms is possible. One of the more common is shown here; reactions in this category consist of replacement of a group designated Y (often a hydrogen atom) in an aromatic molecule by an electrophilic agent designated E. Both substituents can be any one of various groups (e.g., hydrogen atoms or nitro, bromo, or tert-alkyl groups).
Here, Y represents a substituent on the ring; the arrow from the ring centre indicates coordination.
As shown, the reaction begins with formation of a pi complex, in which the electrons associated with the aromatic ring, or other unsaturated centres (pi electrons), coordinate weakly with the electrophile. This complex forms rapidly in an equilibrium preceding the rate-determining step, which itself leads to a carbonium ion intermediate and then by way of a second pi complex to the product. Examples are known in which the removal of the proton from the carbonium ion intermediate (to form the second pi complex) becomes rate-determining.
Reactivity by this mechanism is dominated by the electrophilic character of the reagent (E); however, it also responds powerfully to changes in structure of the organic substrate. As would be expected, substituents that release electrons toward the reaction site facilitate the reaction, and those that withdraw electrons retard reaction. These effects are very specific with regard to the position at which the modifying group is introduced.
Steric (spatial) effects generally are smaller than electronic effects in determining the characteristics of reaction by this mechanism, but they are not negligible. Direct steric hindrance and steric acceleration both have been found with suitably placed large substituents and reagents, and indirect effects arising because one group interferes with the orienting power of another also are known.
Substitution with accompanying rearrangement of the double-bond system is another established reaction path. An example is shown below in which the positions of chlorine attachment and proton loss were established by isotopic labeling.
Addition-elimination and indirect substitution reactions also can occur and are responsible for a number of unusual products formed in aromatic substitution reactions. Examples of these reaction sequences are shown below:
Addition reactions
Reactions in which a multiple bond between two atoms becomes partly or fully saturated by covalent attachments at both centres are called addition reactions. Many mechanisms are known for such reactions; most of them are variants of four basic mechanisms, which differ chiefly in the sequence of events that occur.
With initial electrophilic attack
Addition reactions beginning with electrophilic attack include many additions to olefins (compounds with double bonds), some additions to acetylenes (compounds with triple bonds), and some additions to compounds with other multiple bonds. There is a close relationship between this mode of addition and the electrophilic substitutions discussed in the preceding section, as shown by this general representation of the reaction:
in which the arrows on the olefin structure indicate the flow of electrons toward the terminal carbon, which attracts the electrophilic proton because it becomes an electron-rich centre. Electrophiles, which can be effective either as positive ions (E+) or in combination with a nucleophile (E–N), include protons (H+), carbonium ions (R3C+), positively charged halogen ions (Cl+, Br+, I+), nitronium ions (NO2+), nitrosonium ions (NO+), and many others. In general, any nucleophile can complete the reaction. When the first stage of the reaction (addition of the electrophile) is rate-determining, the rate responds powerfully to electron release to the reaction centre, and this factor determines selectively the orientation of initial attack with respect to the double bond. Thus, propylene reacts with hydrogen chloride many times faster than ethylene does, and the product is exclusively 2-chloropropane, rather than 1-chloropropane, because the concentration of electrons on the terminal carbon determines that the electrophilic proton finds it easier to attack that carbon rather than the central carbon atom.
Addition by this mechanism can be accompanied by substitution and by rearrangement as alternative reactions of the carbonium ionic intermediate. Characteristically, the ratios of product are kinetically controlled (see above Reaction mechanisms: nature of reactants, intermediates, and products). Reactions by this mechanism can be complicated by the intervention of intermediates that are more complicated structurally. Neighbouring-group interaction can modify the structure of the intermediate toward a bridged structure and thus determine the stereochemistry of addition.
Although it is common to find that the first stage of this sequence is rate-determining, in some cases the rate-limiting transition state lies later along the reaction path. It also is possible for the two stages to be concerted, with the electrophilic and nucleophilic fragments (E and N) of the reagent E–N acting either as still covalently bound or as separate kinetic entities (E+ and N−). Especially in acid-catalyzed additions to carbon-oxygen and carbon-nitrogen double bonds, the first stage of the reaction can become rapidly reversible, and the mechanistic characteristics of the reaction are then appropriately modified.
With initial nucleophilic attack
The reverse mode of addition, in which a nucleophile initiates attack on the multiply bonded carbon atom, is less easily realized in simple systems; it does occur with acetylenes, and it also is the basis of reactions that occur when the centre of attack is denuded of electrons. For example, the formation of substances called cyanohydrins from carbonyl compounds (materials with carbon-oxygen double bonds) occurs as follows:
in which the curved arrow indicates the movement of electrons in the carbonyl group. Initial attack on carbon by the nucleophilic cyanide ion in this case is facilitated by the electron withdrawal by the oxygen atom (shown by the curved arrow in the formula). Such electron withdrawal also can be transmitted along a series of alternate double and single bonds (a conjugated system), with resultant addition to the ends of the system.